•■f^t 


-1% 


Ttv- 


*^^ 


'X' 


A: 


X 


/]'fi 


Y^i  -\ 


'fry  l**^- 


T/ 


-'  %^ 


\)%^- 


BILTMORE  ROOM  LIBRARY\|P^ 


v^  ?^ 


'A-*-^:: 


.H,;^ 


y.'^.X  T  ^  '^^    > 


;  ••   ■:    ■  ■■'^-•o  -.V-rv  •<^;::  .'    - 

;a"^<.'^  ■ '  -^^  ^"^^-j;-  x3^^  ■  -.^^^^^ 


>  ^^-^:^-^:5t>:^C -•.v:,^^^^  :   <■■ 


.'iT^ 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Archive 

in  2009  witii  funding  from 

NCSU  Libraries 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/checklistofforesOOsudw 


Bulletin  No.  17.  ^Ut'- 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  FORESTRY. 


CHECK  LIST 


FOREST  TREES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 


THEIR   NAMES  AND   RANGES 


GEORGE     B.    SUI3WORTH, 

Dendrologist  of  the  Division  of  Poresir}'. 


Issued  November  5,  1898. 


PREPARED    UNDER    THE   DIRECTION   OF 

B     E.    EERMOW, 

Chief  of  the  Division  of  Forestry. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMEN-T    PRINTING    OFFICE. 

)  8  g8. 


t'O 


■•?■.» 


LETTER   OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Forestry, 
Waskinfjfo7i,  I).  C,  March  7,  1898. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  for  publication  a  Check 
List  of  the  Forest  Trees  of  the  Unired  States,  prepared  by  Mr.  George 
B.  Siidworth,  Dendrologist  of  the  Division. 

It  represents  in  the  main  a  condensed  reproduction  of  Bulletin 
No.  14,  ^Nomenclature  of  the  Arborescent  Flora  of  the  United  States, 
by  the  same  author,  with  notes  on  the  distribution  of  trees  added 
for  better  identification. 

This  shorter  list,  it  is  believed,  will  be  helpful  in  bringing  about  a 
more  uniform  and  stable  use  of  names  by  lumbermen,  nurserymen,  and 
others  interested  in  forest  trees. 
Respectfully, 


Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


B.  E.  Fernow, 

Chief  of  Division. 


TT;r^, 


^^ 


b 


■^ 


4'tArdjihfHhiAia 


rr 


Mi^Wd5,^^XlW«« 


V-VMtA" 


c 

r 

IE 


« 


.»  # 


«- 


i-jUtel 


Page. 

Introduction.     By  B.  E.  Feruow 7 

Note  ou  ranjie  of  species.     By  ( ieorge  B.  Sud worth 9 

Clieik  list  of  tlie  forest  trees  of  the  United  States,  their  nanu^s  and  ranges  ...         13 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  first  necessity  for  any  forestry  work  is  a  knowledge  of  the  trees 
which  the  forester  is  ai)t  to  meet  in  the  forest,  and  again  the  first 
knowledge  before  he  can  think  or  talk  of  trees  is  that  of  their  names. 

While  most  of  our  forest  trees  are  named  both  by  botanists  and  lay- 
men, a  great  number  of  entirely  different  kinds,  or  species,  have  received 
the  same  name,  and  also  the  same  species  has  received  a  great  number 
of  names  by  which  it  is  called  in  different  parts  of  its  range  of  occur- 
rence. This  confusion  of  names  has  led  not  only  to  many  annoying 
inconveniences  and  misunderstandings,  but  often  to  fatal  mistakes,  as 
when  a  nurseryman  fills  an  order  with  an  entirely  different  kind  of  tree 
than  was  intended  by  the  customer,  or  when  a  lumberman  supplies  an 
architect  with  an  unsuitable  material  because  their  ideas  as  to  what 
was  ordered  are  at  variance.  Hence,  the  Division  of  Forestry  has  con- 
sidered it  a  first  duty  to  arrive  at  a  uniform  and  stable  nomenclature, 
both  of  scientific  and  vernacular  names,  by  a  revision  of  the  existing 
names,  or  synonymy,  in  the  hope  that,  while  neither  uniformity  nor  sta- 
bility can  be  brought  about  by  the  mere  publication  of  a  list  of  names, 
such  i)ublication,  carefully  considered,  might  at  least  pave  the  way  for 
such  a  desired  end. 

The  botanical  names  have  been  revised  according  to  certain  laws 
now  adopted  by  many  botanists.  The  revision  has  been  made  by  the 
competent  Dendrologist  of  the  Division,  Mr.  George  B.  Sudworth,  and 
has  been  printed  with  a  full  synonymy  and  explanations  in  Bulletin 
No.  14:  of  this  Division,  Nomenclature  of  the  Arborescent  Flora  of  the 
United  States.  This  bulky  publication  was,  however,  printed  only  in 
limited  numbers,  thereby  preventing  its  widespread  use.  Since  for 
practical  uses  it  was  not  necessary  to  state  the  entire  botanical  syn- 
onymy, and  in  order  to  make  the  work  more  accessible,  the  present 
check  list,  being  in  part  an  abbreviated  and  amended  reproduction  of 
Bulletin  No.  14,  has  been  prepared. 

For  better  identification,  and  in  order  to  increase  the  value  of  the 
list,  the  geographical  range  of  the  species  has  been  added  in  a  few 
brief  Avords. 

The  list  of  names  comprises  an  enumeration  of  all  the  trees  indig- 
enous to  the  United  States,  495  in  number,  the  designation  of  "tree" 
being  applied  to  all  woody  plants  which  produce  naturally  in  their 
native  habitat  one  main,  erect.stem  bearing  a  definite  crown,  no  matter 
what  size  they  attain. 


8 

A  few  thoronj;lily  naturalized  trees  are  also  noted,  and  natural  or 
artificial  varieties  and  hybrids  Lave  been  fully  cited. 

Underneath  the  name  adopted  as  correct  accordin<>'  to  the  laws  of 
uouienclature  referred  to,  whenever  a  (;hange  has  been  made  from  the 
name  usually  found  in  current  textbooks,  the  text-book  name  is  also 
given,  in  different  type. 

The  selection  of  a  vernacular  name  from  the  multitude  of  those  in 
use  is  much  more  difficult,  especially  since  the  same  name  is  often 
applied  to  many  totally  different  trees.  Thus,  we  have  lii  Ironwoods, 
10  Junipers,  (»  Yellow  Pines,  8  Balsams,  etc.,  each  referring  to  different 
species  and  often  to  different  genera.  There  are  also  many  species 
which  have  no  vernacular  name,  not  being  recognized  by  the  layman. 
There  is  no  law  upon  tlie  basis  of  which  a  selection  could  be  made. 
The  selection,  therefore,  had  to  be  based  on  a  few  common-sense  rules 
as  a  guide  and  with  the  principle  of  conservatism,  the  only  rational 
one,  in  the  foreground.  A  large  number  of  correspondents  were  asked 
to  submit  lists  of  names  in  common  use  in  various  localities.  Upon 
the  basis  of  these  lists  the  name  used  in  the  greatest  number  of  locali- 
ties has  been  given  the  preference  unless  it  was  also  applied  to  some 
other  tree,  when,  as  an  interference  had  to  be  avoided,  either  another 
name  most  commonly  used  or  a  name  njost  descriptive  and  pertinent 
was  selected.  When  possible,  and  where  no  vernacular  names  existed, 
a  translation  of  the  botanical  name  was  taken,  keeping,  however,  in 
mind  the  "name  quality"  of  the  combination,  that  is,  a  combination 
into  the  use  of  which  as  a  name  it  would  be  natural  to  fall. 

In  some  cases,  where  confusion  or  undesirable  inconsistency  was 
caused  by  one  name  serving  different  genera,  an  attempt  at  segrega- 
tion without  too  much  violence  to  well-established  usage  has  beeu 
made,  as,  for  instance,  in  th(^  case  of  Cedar.  This  name  is  usod  indis- 
criminately for  Juniperus,  Thuja,  Gham<ecyparis,  and  Libocedrus. 
We  have  with  consistency  a 'opted  the  names  Juniper  for.tlie  first, 
Arborvitu'  for  the  second,  and  Cedar,  for  the  last  two,  well  aware  that 
it  may  be  difficult  to  overcome  the  objection  of  the  logger's  practice,  at 
least  to  the  name  Aiborvita'. 

To  enable  ready  reference  and  pave  the  way  for  general  adoption  of 
these  names,  not  only  a  complete  index  to  all  the  common  names  in  the 
list,  but  a  full  synonymy  grouped  by  States  is  added,  so  that  the  lay- 
manor  botanist  can  readily  determine  what  plant  probably  is  meant  by 
the  native. 

Changes  in  practice  can  only  come  gradually  and  as  the  desirability 
for  change  ai)pears;  then  what  is  sensible  and  adaptable  will  be  adopted 
and  what  lacks  in  adaptability  will  fail  of  acceptance.  This  list,  there- 
fore, is  to  be  considered  only  as  a  first  step  to  improvement  and  will 
serve  as  basis  for  further  work  of  this  Division. 

B.  E.  Fernow. 


NOTE  ON    RANGE  OF  SPPXIES. 


The  first  attempt  in  recent  years  to  enumerate  all  of  the  North 
American  trees  (iiortli  of  the  Mexican  boundary),  with  a  description  of 
their  range  and  habitat,  was  made  by  Prof.  0.  S.  Sargent,  and  the  cat- 
alogue was  published  in  a  bulky  volume  (IX)  of  the  Tenth  Census 
(1884).  The  rai^id  increase  of  knowledge  of  American  trees  since  then, 
however,  has  made  many  additions  necessary,  both  as  to  newly  discov 
ered  species  and  as  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  range  of  many  of 
those  new  or  little  known  and  also  of  the  well-known  species.  The 
elaborate  Silva  of  North  America,  which  Professor  Sargent  has  now 
nearly  completed  as  a  sequel  and  amplification,  with  botanical  features, 
etc.,  of  the  Tenth  Census  catalogue,  will  be  the  most  complete  work 
issued,  but  from  its  high  price  it  must  unfortunately  remain  inaccessible 
to  many. 

Aside  from  these  two  works  our  best  information  concerning  the 
number  of  species  and  range  of  North  American  trees  is  to  be  found 
chiefiy  in  such  regional  works  on  botany  as  Gray's  Manual  of  Botany 
of  the  Northern  States,  Synoptical  Flora  of  North  America  (unfinished), 
Chapnian's  Flora  of  the  Southern  States,  Coulter's  Manual  of  Rocky 
Mountain  Botany  and  Botany  of  Western  Texas,  and  the  Botany  of 
California,  by  Sereno  Watson  and  other  collaborators;  also,  recently, 
the  Illustrated  Flora  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  by  Britton  and 
Brown.  Other  sources  of  information  are  found  in  the  modest  and 
often  little  known  State  and  county  catalogues  of  idants  issued  by  local 
botanists,  together  with  various  articles  scattered  through  American 
and  foreign  scientific  journals  and  proceedings  of  scientific  societies. 

Moreover,  the  army  of  professional  and  amateur  botanists  engaged 
in  botanical  research  are  yearly  bringing  to  light  new  facts,  which  are 
constantly  enlarging  our  understanding  of  the  geographical  distribu- 
tion of  trees  and  other  plants.  But  our  knowledge  of  the  range  of  tree 
species  alone,  especially  since  so  vast  a  territory,  with  nearly  500  dif- 
ferent species,  has  to  be  compassed,  must  long  remain  a  variable  quan- 
tity;  and  the  sum  total  of  facts  concerning  the  geographical  range  of 
any  of  our  trees  must  necessarily  be  an  expression  of  the  united 
efforts  of  all  working  botanists;  for  the  unaided  diligence  of  one 
man's  lifetime  could  never  carry  his  search  and  study  into  all  of 
nature's  hiding  i^laces  for  even  trees  alone.  The  geographical  range 
notes  presented  in  this  volume  are,  therefore,  drawn  from  all  the  reli- 
«able  botanical  jmblications  available,  supplemented  by  new  facts  per- 
sonally gathered  in  recent  field  work. 


10 

In  ontlining  the  range  of  each  species  care  has  been  taken,  when- 
ever reliable  information  was  available,  to  indicate  as  exactly  as  possi- 
ble points  of  liinit;ition  by  the  mention  of  counties,  water  courses, 
mountain  systems,  etc.,  and  especially  has  this  been  aimed  at  in  the 
case  of  new,  rare,  or  little-known  species.  Wherever  the  range  appears 
in  more  general  terms  specific  information  has  not  been  at  hand  with 
which  to  give  more  definite  limits.  In  the  case  of  very  common, 
widely,  and  continuously  distributed  species,  however,  the  range  often 
appears  in  somewhat  general  terms,  for  the  reason  that  the  ready 
detection  of  the  species  within  the  general  lines  renders  more  detailed 
delineation  unnecessary. 

A  lack  of  space  has  excluded  from  the  present  catalogue  any  but 
occasional  statements  of  the  manner  of  occurrence  of  each  species, 
that  is,  whether  found  in  forests  of  pure  growth,  as  in  the  case  of 
Beech,  Sugar  Maple,  White  Oak,  White  Tine,  etc.,  or  as  single  indi- 
viduals or  scattered  groups  in  a  mixed  growth,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
magnolias,  bass  woods,  ashes,  etc.  Related  and  alike  interesting  facts 
which  have  been  omitted  are  the  special  characters  of  soil,  moisture, 
and  altitude  appearing  to  limit  the  natural  occurrence  of  individuals 
to  certain  sites  within  a  species'  broader  range;  as,  for  example,  the 
exclusive  occupancy  of  low,  mucky  ground  in  the  Northeast  by  the 
Tamarack,  while  the  adjoining  stififer  soils  may  bear  Black  Ash,  with 
Red  Maple  and  Yellow  Birch,  and  the  still  drier  contiguous  upland 
soils  may  bear  Red  Oak,  White  Oak,  Sugar  Maple,  etc. 

Again,  many  trees  are  found  to  be  more  or  less  continuously  distrib- 
uted throughout  their  range,  so  that  they  are  likely  to  be  met  with  at 
frequent  intervals.  Thus,  in  traversing  the  territorial  range  of  the 
familiar  White  (3ak,  individuals  may  be  found  in  nearly  every  county 
and  township,  while  less  common  species  will  be  met  with  only  in  more 
widely  separated  stations,  in  some  cases  occurring  as  ap])arently  acci- 
dental individuals.  Peculiar,  but  usually  accountable,  phenomena  are 
also  seen  in  tree  distribution  where  extensive  areas  of  forest  forming 
species  are  very  widely  disconnected.  A  familiar  example  of  this  is 
the  distribution  of  Plnus  palustris  in  the  Gulf  region,  where  the  species 
suddenly  fades  out  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  but  reappears  again 
and  in  commercial  quantities  about  100  miles  westward,  in  eastern 
Texas.    Other  less  marked  examples  might  be  cited. 

It  is,  therefore,  to  be  understood  by  the  layman  that  within  the  ranges, 
as  stated  in  general  terms,  the  species  may  be  absent  in  many  locali 
ties,  and  personal  observation  must  aid  the  student  to  properly  inter- 
pret the  general  range. 

ADVENTIVE   TEEES. 

In  enumerating  the  indigenous  trees  of  North  America,  it  seems  proper 
from  tinje  to  time  to  include  also  certain  exotic  species  which  show  the 
power  of  existing  and  spreading  independently  and  without  cultivation. 
Occurrence  under  such  conditions  may  be  taken  as  fairly  indicative  of 


11 


naturalization.  Such  trees  as  the  poplars,  willows,  Ailantlms,  etc., 
baviiii]:  been  more  or  less  extensively  cultivated,  have  escaped  and  be- 
come widely  and  tlioroufthly  naturalized.  Still  other  exotics,  such  as 
the  Paulownia,  Paper  Mulberry,  Tallow- tree,  etc.,  of  less  extensive 
adaptability  to  varying  dim  itic  conditions,  have  become  naturalized 
HI  certain  restricted  regions.  There  are  also  many  indigenous  trees, 
such  as  locusts  and  catalpas,  which,  through  wide  cultivation,  have 
largely  increased  the  area  of  their  distribution  and  become  naturalized 
outside  of  their  original  range. 

No  systematic  ceusus  of  the  actual  range  of  such  naturalized  species 
in  North  America  has  been  attempted  in  the  present  catalogue,  the 
statements  of  their  presence  being  often  based  upon  more  or  less  incom- 
plete observations,  but  in  all  cases  sufficient  to  warrant  their  introduc- 
tion as  associates  of  native  species.  Several  cultivated  exotic  species, 
not  included  in  the  present  catalogue,  show  a  tendency  to  become 
naturalized.  But  the  existence  of  such  species  seems  for  the  most  part 
to  be  confined  to  old  and  neglected  grounds  where,  to  a  limited  extent, 
the  trees  have  become  self-propagated,  though  hardly  capable  of  advanc- 
ing and  holding  their  own  against  the  vicissitudes  of  more  exposed 
localities  and  other  contestants  for  the  soil.  It  is  thought  best,  there- 
fore, to  exclude  such  trees  till  further  observation  proves  them  to  be 
naturalized. 


Geoege  B.  Sud worth. 


JjOO 


CHECK  LIST  OF  FOREST  TREES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


GYMNOSPERM^E. 

Familv  PINJVCE^E..  , 

Pinus  strobus  Liun.  White  Pine. 

Raxgk. — From  Newfoundland  (White  Bay  region)  and  along  the  northern  sborcs  of 
St.  Lawrence  Gulf  to  northern  Ontario  (uear  Abittibl  and  Nipigou  lakes)  southern 
Manitoba  (near  southern  end  of  Lake  Winnipeg);  southward  tiirough  northern  and 
easteru  Minnesota,  northeastern  (Mitchell  County)  and  eastern  border  of  Iowa  (to 
Scott  County),  northeru  (counties)  Illinois,  soutbern  shores  of  Luke  Michigan, 
southern  Michigan  (north  of  Allegau,  Eaton,  and  St.  Clair  counties),  northeastern 
and  easteru  (border  counties)  Ohio,  and  along  the  Allegheny  Mountains  to  northern 
Georgia  (Tallulah  Falls). 

Names  in  use.— White  Pine  (Me.,  X.  U.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  E.  I.,  Conn., 
K  Y.,  X.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  Ga.,  Ind.,  III.,  Wis.,  Mich., 
Minn.,  Ohio,  Ont.,  Nebr.);  Weymouth  Pine  (Mass.,  S.  C);  Soft  Pine 
(Pa.);  Northeru  Pine  (S.  C);  Spruce  Pine  (Tenn.). 

VARIETIES   DISTINGUISHED   IN    CULTIVATION. 

Pinus  strobiis  brevifolia  Loud. 
Pinus  strobus  umbraculifera  Knight. 
Piuus  strobus  niiuima  Beissn. 
Piuus  strobus  fastigiata  (Koch)  Beissn. 
Pinus  strobus  viridis  Carr. 
Pinus  strobus  gracilifolia  Sndw. 
Pinus  strobus  iiivea  (Knight)  Carr. 
Pinus  strobus  aurea  Carr. 
Pinus  strobus  variegata  Carr. 
Pinus  strobus  zebrina  Beissn. 
Pinus  strobus  prostrata  Hort.  Kew. 
Piuus  strobus  unifolia'  nom.  uov. 

Pinus  monticola  Dougl.  Silver  Pine. 

Rance. — From  Vancouver  Island  and  southern  British  Columbia  (coast  and  gold 
ranges)  through  northern  Idaho  (Cojur  d'Alone  and  Bitter  Root  mountains)  to 
nortbern  Montana  (Flathead  River)  and  southward  through  Washington  and  Oregon 
(Cascade  Mountains)  to  California  (on  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  to  Calaveras 
County). 

'  Pinus  sfrobiis  uvifolia  nom.  nov.  =  Pinus  strobus  forma  nova  monophylla  Tubeuf,  in 

Forstl.-natnrw.  Zeitschr.,  VII.,  34,  (t.)  35,  1898,  not  P.  monophijUa  Torr.  «fe  Frem. 

1845.     A  form  recently  detected  in  Germany  and  characterized  by  Dr.  Tubeuf  as 

having  the  needles  more  or  less  cohering  througboat  their  length  and  forming  a 

single  needle. 

13 


14 

Names  in  use. — White  Pine  (Cal.,  Nev.,  Oreg.);  Finjjer-cone  Pine, 
(Cal.);  :\Ioniitain  Pino  (Cal.);  Soft  Pine  (Cal.);  Little  Sugar  Pine  (Cal.); 
Mountain  Weymouth  Pine;  Western  White  Pine. 
^^je4i'I*inus  lambertiana  Dougl.  Sugar  Pine. 

J^  Kangk.— Coast  rci^ion   from    Oregon    (head  of    McKinzie  and    Rogue  rivers)  to 

kJI^'     California  (Sierra  Nevada  Moiintaina  and  coast  ranges  to  Santa  Lucia  Mouutain.s; 
San  Bernardino  and  Cuyaniaca  mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Sugar  Pine  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  Big  Pine;  Shade  Pine 
(Cal.);  Great  Sugar  Pine;  Little  Sugar  Pine;  Gigantic  Pine  (Cal. lit.); 
Purple  coned  Sugar  Pine. 

Finns  flexilis  James.  Limber  Pine. 

Range. — Rocky  Mountain  region  from  Montana  to  western  Texas  (Guadalupe  and 
Limpia  mountains)  and  New  Mexico;  in  mountains  of  northern  Arizona,  Utah, 
Nevada,  and  California  (Inyo  Mountains  and  Mount  Sillman). 

Names  in  use.— White  Pine  (Cal.,  Nev.,  Utah,  Colo.,  N.  Mex.);  Pine 
(Utah,  Mont);  Bull  Pine  (Colo.);  Rocky  Mountain  White  Pine  (Cal.); 
Kocky  Mountain  Pine;  Limber-twig  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Western  White 
Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Arizona  Flexilis  Pine. 

Finns  albicaulis  Engelm.  White-bark  Pine. 

Rangk. — From  British  Columbia  (coast  ranges  and  Lltasyouco  River)  southward 
and  through  Washington  and  Oregon  (on  Blue  Mountains);  eastward  tlirough 
northern  Washington  to  northern  Montana  (eastern  base  Rocky  Mountains);  Cali- 
fornia (Sierra  Nevada  to  San  Bernardino  mountains;  Scotts  Mountain  and  Mount 
Shasta). 

Names  in  use. — White-stem  Pine  (Cal.,  Mont.);  Scrub  Pine  (Mont.); 
Pitch  Pine  (Mont.);  White-bark  (Oreg.);  White  bark  Pine  (Cal.); 
Creeping  Pine  (Cal.  lit.) ;  Alpine  White-bark  Pine  (Cal.  lit.). 

Finns  strobiformis  Engelm.  Mexican  White  Pine. 

Rangk. — Southwestern  New  Mexico  (mountains)  to  Arizona  (Santa  Rita  and  Santa 
Catalina  mountains);  mountains  of  Mexico  and  Guaten)ala. 

Names  in  use. — Ayacahuite  Pine;  White  Pine  (Ariz.);  Mexican 
White  Pine;  Arizona  White  Pine. 

Pinus  quadrifolia  Pari.  Parry  Pinon. 

PiNUS  PARRYANA  Engelm. 

Ran(;e. — Southern  California  (San  Diego  County)  and  southward  into  Lower 
California. 

Names  in  use. — Nut  Pine  (Cal.);  Parry's  Pine  (Cal.);  Parry's  Nut 
Pine  (Cal.);  Parry  Nut  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Pinon  (Cal.);  Mexican  Piuou 

''"'•'"■'•  ,     UloJi*^ '^'''^- 

Pinus  cembroides  Zucc.  "^^^"^^    '  Mexican  Pinon. 

Rangk. — Arizona  (Santa  Catalina  Mountains)  and  northern  Mexico. 
Names  in  use. — Nut  Pine  (Ariz.,  N.  Mex.);  Pinon   (Mex.);  Stone- 
seed  Mexican  Pinon  (lit.);  Mexican  Cembra-like  Pine  (lit.). 

Finns  ednlis  Engelm.  Pinon. 

Range. — From  Colorado  (eastern  base  Pikes  Peak)  through  New  Mexico  and  to 
western  Texas  (mountains). 

Names  in  use.— Pifion  (Tex.,  Colo.);  Nut  Pine  (Tex.,  Colo.);  Pinon 
Pine  (Colo.);  New  Mexican  Pinon  (lit.). 


15 
Pinus  monophylla  Torr.  &  Frem.  Single-leaf  Pinon. 

l\A\(iK. — From  rtah  (^near  Utah  Lake)  to  California,  (eastorn  foothills  Sierru 
Nevada  Moinitains)  and  southward  into  eastern  Arizona  (San  Francisco  Mountains). 

Names  in  tse. — Piuoti  (Cal.,  Ariz.,  Nev.,  Utah);  Nut  Pine  (Cal., 
Ariz.,  Nev.,  Utah) ;  Gray  Pine  (Nev.) ;  Nevada  Nut  Pine  (Cal.) ;  Siu<;le- 
leaf  (Gal.  lit.);  Fremont's  Nut  Pine  (Cal.  lit.). 

Pinus  balfouriana  Murr.  Foxtail  Pine. 

Range. — California  (Scotts  Mountain  in  Siskiyou  County;  Mount  Whitney  and 
sources  of  King  and  Kern  rivers). 

Names  in  use. — Spruce  Pine  (Cal. lit.);  Foxtail  Pine  (Gal.). 
Pinus  aristata  Eiigelm.  Bristle-cone  Pine. 

Range. — From  Colorado  through  southern  Utah,  northern  Arizona,  and  Nevada  to 
southeastern  California. 

Names  in  use. — Hickory  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Bristle-cone  Pine  (Gal.  lit.) ; 
Foxtail  Pine  (Cal.  lit.).  .  . 

Pinus  resinosa  Ait.  J\m4  WA         X  /9lAAt'<fevH^ .     Red  Pine. 

Rani'.e. — From  Newfoundland  and  along  the  northern  shores  of  St.  Lawrence  Gulf 
to  northern  Ontario  (north  of  Ahittibi  Lake)  to  southern  Manitoba  (near  southern 
end  of  Lake  Winnipeg);  southward  through  the  Northern  States  to  Massachtisetts 
(Middlesex  Countj^),  Pennsylvania  (Chester  County),  northeastern  Ohio  (north  of 
Cleveland),  central  Michigan  (Saginaw),  northern  Wisconsin  (Oshkosh  and  Eau 
Claire),  and  northeastern  Minnesota. 

Names  in  use.— Red  Pine  (Vt.,N.  H.,N.Y.,  Wis.,  Minn., Ont.);  Nor- 
way Pine  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  Wis., Mich.,  Minn.,  Out.);  Hard 
Pine  (Wis.);  Canadian  Red  Pine  (Eng.). 

Pinus  torreyana  Parry.  Torrey  Pine. 

Range. — Southern  California  (Soledad  River  in  San  Diego  County). 

Names  in  use. — Soledad  Pine  (Gal.);  Del  Mar  Pine  (Gal.);  Lone 
Pine  (Cal.);  Torrey  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Torrey's  Pine. 
Pinus  arizonica  Engelin.  Arizona  Pine. 

Range. — Southern  Arizona  (Chiricahna,  Santa  Catalina,  El  Rincon,  and  Santa 
Rita  mountains). 

Names  IN  USE. — Arizona  Yellow  Pine  (Cal.);  Arizona  Pine;  Arizona 
5-leaved  Lumber  Pine  (Gal.  lit.). 

Pinus  ponderosa  Laws.  Bull  Pine. 

Range. — From  British*  Columbia  (interior  south  of  latitude  51°),  and  Dakota 
(Black  Hills  region)  southward  in  the  Pacific  and  Rocky  Mountain  region  to  west- 
ern Texas  and  Mexico. 

Names  in  use. — Yellow  Pine  (Cal.,  Colo.,  Mont.,  Idaho,  Utah, 
Wash.,  Oreg-.);  Bull  Pine  (Cal.,  Wash.,  Utah,  Idaho,  Greg.);  Big  Pine 
(Mont.);  Long  leaved  Pine  (Utah, Nev.);  Red  Pine;  Pitch  Pine;  South- 
ern Yellow  Pine;  Heavy-wooded  Pine  (Eng.);  Western  Pitch  Pine; 
Heavy  Pine  (Cal.);  Foothills  Yellow  Pine;  Sierra  Brownbark  Pine; 
Montana  Black  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  "Gambler  Parry's  Pine"  (Eng.  lit.). 

Pinus  ponderosa  scopulorum  Engelm.  Rock  Pine. 

Range. — Rocky  Mountain  region. 

Names  in  use. — Yellow  Pine  (Mont.,  Nebr.);  Bull  Pine  (Colo.); 
Long  leaved  Pine  (Colo.);  Rocky  Mountain  Yellow  Pine  (lit.). 


16 

VARIKTY    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Pinus  pouderosa  penduliformis  Sudw.  Weeping  Bull  Pine. 

tinus  apacheca  Lenimon.  Apache  Pine. 

Rancji:. — Soutlieasteru  Arizona  (Chiricahua  Mountains).  Species  insufficiently 
unilcrstood,  and  may  prove  to  be  a  lorm  of  /'.  ponderosa. 

Pinus  mayriana  Sad  worth.  Arizona  Long-leaf  Pine. 

Pinus  latifolia  Sarg.,  not  of  authors. 

Range. — Soutbera  Arizona  (Santa  Rita  Mountains).     Range  insufficiently  known. 

Names  in  use. — Broad-leaf  rine  (lit.);  Arizona  liroad-leaf  Pine  (lit.); 
Mayr  Pine  (lit.). 
Pinus  jefFreyi  "Oreg.  Com."  Jeffrey  Pine. 

Raxge. — California  (Scotta  Mountain  in  Siskiyou  County  and  along  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  to  San  Bernardino  and  Sau  Jacinto  mountaius);  Soutliern  Oregon 
(Dongl.is  Connty,  30  miles  south  of  Roscburg). 

Names  in  use.— Bull  Pine  (Cal.);  Black  Pine  (Cal.);  Western  Black 
Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Pinos(Cal.);  Trnckce  Pine(Nev.);  Sapwood  Pine  (Cal.); 
Jeffrey  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Blackbark  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Redbark  Pine  (Cal. 
lit.):  Peninsula  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Sierra  Redbark  Pine  (Cal.  lit.); 
Peninsula  Black  Pine  (Cal.  lit.). 
Pinus  chihuahuana  Engelrn.  Chihuahua  Pine. 

Ramie. — Sowtliwesteru  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  (Santa  Rit<a  and  San  Francisco 
mountains)  and  southward  iu  ilexico. 

Names  in  i  se. — Chihuahua  Top-cone  Pine  (Cal.  lit.). 
Pinus  contorta  Loud.  Shore  Pine. 

Raxcji;. — Coast  region  from  xVlaska  to  California  (Mendocino  County). 

Na:\ies  in  use.— Scrub  Pine;  Knotty  Pine;  Tamarack  (Cal.);  Sand 
Pine  (Oreg.):  North  Coast  Scrub  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Bolander's  Pine; 
Henderson's  Pine. 

Pinus  murrayana  "Oreg.  Com."  Lodgepole  Pine. 

Range. — From  Alaska  (Yukon  River)  and  southward  through  interior  British 
Columbia;  the  mountains  of  Washington  and  Oregon  to  California  (Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  to  San  Jacinto  Mountains);  plateau  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  (latitude 
56°)  and  south  through  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  to  New  Mexico  and  northern 
Arizona. 

Names  in  use.— Tamarack  (Wye,  Utah,  Mont.,  Cal.);  Prickly  Pine 
(Utah);  White  Pine  (Mont.);  Black  Pine  (Wyo.);  Lodgepole  Pine 
(Wyo.,  Mont.,  Idaho);  Spruce  Pine  (Colo.,  Idaho,  Mont.);  Tamarack 
Pine  (Cal.);  Murray  Pine  (Cal.  lit.j.  .       ^    ^  ^i  ^    ^ 

Pinus  sabiniana  Dougl.  ^^*''^     '" '   "  ^^^^     ^js^'^V^-' '  ^^^^  p . ^^^ 

Ranue. — California  (.Shasta  Connty  and  southward  in  foothills  of  coast  ran<;oa 
and  on  western  .slojies  of  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains).    yu^W^  *Vvi<>.t>W  ;/ 

Names  in  use.— Sabine's  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Gray-leaf  Pine fcal.j^^^ 
Pinus  coulteri  Lamb,      fry  a    >/ ,^  y,^     /  '      *  Coulter  Pine. '► 

Ra.nce. — California  (from  Monte  Diablo  to  Cuyamaca  Mountains);  possibly  far- 
ther southward  iu  Lower  California. 

Names  in  use.— Coulter's  Pine  (Cal.);  Nut  Pine  (Cal.);  Bigcone 
Pine  (Cal.);  Large-coned  Pine  (Eng.  lit.). 


17 

Pinus  radiata  Don.  Monterey  Pine 

I'lNi'S  iNSiGNis  Douglas  in  herb,  ex  Loudon. 

Eangk. — California  (Poiut  Tiiios  on  Monterey  Bay,  and  along  the  toast  from  Ven 
cadero  to  San  Simeon  I5ay). 

Names  in  use. — Monterey  Pine  (Cal.);  Spreading-coiie  Tine  (Cal. 
lit.);  Nearly  smooth-cone  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Remarkablo  Pine  (Cal.  lit); 
Siuall-couetl  Monterey  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Two-leaved  Insular  Pine.' 

Pinus  attenuata  Lommon.  Knobcone  Pine 

I'lXUS   TUBERCULATA  (xOrd. 

Range. — Oreg:on  (McKinzie  River  and  south  on  western  slopes  of  Cascade  and 
Sierra  Nevada  nionntains)  to  California  (coast  ranges  from  Santa  Cruz  to  San  Jacinto 
Mountains). 

Names  in  vse. — Knobcone  Pine  (Oreg.,  Cal.);  Prickly-cone  Pine. 
(Idaho);  Snn-loving  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Sunny-slope  IMne  (Cal.  lit.);  Nar- 
row-cone Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Tuberculated-coned  Pine  (Eug.  lit.). 

Pinus  tasda  Linn.  Loblolly  Pine. 

Raxgk. — South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  from  New  Jersey  (C:ipe  May  >,  sontliern 
Delaware  and  AYcst  Virginia  (Wood,  Mineral,  Hampshire,  and  Hardy  conntics)  to 
central  Florida  (Cape  Malabar  and  Tampa  Bay)  and  west  to  eastern  Texas  (Colorado 
River;  in  Bastrop  County) ;  northward  into  southeastern  Indian  Territory,  Arkan- 
sas, and  southern  border  of  middle  and  west  Tennessee. 

Names  in  use. — Loblolly  Pine  (Del.,  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla., 
Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.);  Oldfield  Piue  (Del.,  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala., 
Fla.,  :\Iiss.,  La., Tex.,  Ark.);  Torch  Pine  (Eng.  lit);  Rosemary  Pine  (Va., 
N.  C,  in  part);  Slash  Piue(Va.,  N.  C,  in  part);  Lo)igschat  Pine  (Del.)., 
Longshncks  (Md.,  Ya.);  Black  Slash  Pine  (S.  C);  Frankincense  Pine 
(lit) ;  Shortleaf  Pine  '( Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  La.) ;  Ball  Pine  (Texas  and  Gulf 
region);  Virginia  Pine;  Sap  Pine  (Va.,  N.  C);  Meadow  Pine  (Fla.); 
Cornstalk  Pine  ( Va.) ;  Black  Pine  ( Va.) ;  Foxtail  Pine  ( Va.,  Md.) ;  Indian 
Piue  (Va.,  N.  C);  Spruce  Pine  (Va.,  in  part);  Bastard  Pine  (Va., 
N.  C);  Yellow  Piue  (north  Ala.,N.  C);  Swamp  Pine  (Va.,  N.  C.]; 
Longstraw  Pine  ( Ya.^.  C.,  in  Dart).  J        .         ^  yyjujih 

Pinus  rigida  Mill.  ^4/<iJlgfhSl^  PJ^^^^  Pitch  Pine. 

Raxgk. — Fiom  southern  Wew  Brunswick  (St.  Johns  River)  to  eastern  Ontario 
(north  shore  of  Lake  Ontario  and  Lower  Ottawa  River)  and  southward  in  the  Atlantic 
region  to  southern  Virginia  (\orfolk)  and  along  the  mountains  to  northern  Georgia 
(Atlanta);  west  to  western  New  York  (Ithaca),  northeastern  Pennsylvania,  eastern 
Ohio  (border  counties  south  of  Canton)  and  Kentucky,  eastern  Tennessee  (to  Cum- 
berland Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Pitch  Pine  (Vt,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y., 
N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Wt  Va.,  :^.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ohio,  Out,  Md.,  Eng.);  Long- 
leaved  Pine  (Del.);  Longschat  Pine  (Del.);  Hard  Pine  (Mass.);  Yellow 
Pine  (Pa.);  Black  Pine  (N.  C);  Black  Norway  Pine  (N.  Y.);  Rigid  Pine 
(Eng.  lit);  Sap  Piue  (lit). 

•Refers  to  the  two  leafed  form  Piints  radiala  ifnna/a  (Engelm.)  Lemni.,  found  on 
Santa  Rosa,  Santa  Cruz,  and  Guadaloupe  islands. 

19193— No.  17 2 


18  »  '  yr-r^rr^ 


PInus  serotina  Michx. f  AY'^-' -f -  ^^'^*'     M,^    f        Pond  Pine. 

Ra\i;k. — Coast  rei^ion  from  North  Carolina  to  Florifla  (head  of  St.  .Johns  Kivt-r, 
ami  probahly  farther  south  ;  on  the  west  coast  from  Pensacola  to  Citrus  Couuty  ami 
probably  iiiiuli  farther  south).     Eange  imperfectly  known. 

Names  in  use. — Marsh  Pine  (N.  C);  Meadow  Pine  (N.  C);  Pond 
Pine  (X.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.);  Loblolly  Pine  (N.  C,  Fla.); 
Spruce  Pine  (S.  C,  Ga.);  Ba.stard  Pine  (S.  C,  Ga.);  Bull  Piue  (S.  C, 
Ga.). 

Pinus  Virginians  Mill.  •  ' '^   "  Scrub  Pine. 

PiNU.s  iNops  Solander  ex  Ait. 

Range. — From  New  York  (Staten  Island)  to  South  Carolina  (Aiken  River)  and 
nortlieru  Alabama  (Winston,  Cullman,  and  Dekall)  counties);  west  into  southern 
Indiana,  to  middle  Tennessee  (Putnam  County). 

Names  in  use. — Jersey  Pine  (N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  N.  C,  S.  (3.);  Scrub 
Pine  (R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ohio);  Short  Slincks  (Md., 
Va.);  Sliortsliat  Pine  (Del.);  Spruce  Pine  (N.  J.,  N.  C):  Sliorth-aved 
(N.  C);  Cedar  Pine  (N.  C);  Ptiver  Piue  (N.  C);  Nigger  Pine  (Teuu); 
New  Jersey  Pine  (lit.). 
Pinus  claiisa  (Enoelni.)  Sargent.  Sand  Pine. 

Kaxgk. — Coast  of  Alabama  (Baldwin  County)  and  western  Florida  (to  Pease 
Creek) ;  east  coast  of  Florida  from  St.  Augustine  to  Halifax  River. 

Names   in   use.— Sand    Pine  (Fla.,  Ala.);    Oldfield   Pine   (Fla.); 
Florida  Sprui;e  Pine  (Ala.);  Scrub  Pine  (Fla.);  Spruce  Piue  (Fla.); 
Upland  Spruce  Pine  (Fla.). 
Pinus  pungens  Miclix.  f.  Table-mountain  Pine. 

RaN(;i;. — District  of  Columbia,  Maryland,  and  Allegheny  Mountain  region  I'rom 
Pennsylvania  to  eastern  and  middle  Tennessee  and  Georgia  (Tallulah  Falls). 

Names    in    use. — Table  mountain    Pine    (Pa.,   Del.,   Md.,  S.  C); 
Southern  Mountain  Piue  (Tenu.);  Prickly  Piue  (N.  C.). 
Pinus  muricata  Don.  California  S-wramp  Pine. 

Rangk, — Calil'ornia  coast  (Fort  Bragg,  Mendocino  County,  and  south  in  coast 
range-  to  San  Luis  Obispo  County);  Lower  California  (Cedros  Islands  and  coast  of 
Esenado  and  San  Quitan). 

Names  in  use. — Swamp  Pine  (Cal.);  Dwarf  Marine  Pine  (Cal.); 
Prickle  cone  Pine  (Cal.);  P.isliop's  Piue  (Cal.  and  Eug.  lit.);  Anthony's 
Prickle  cone  Pine  (Cal.  lit.);  Obispo  Piue  (Cal.) 

Pinus  echinata  Mill.      ^}(r^     'X    /tier /^i  "ifj  Shortleaf  Pine. 

Pinus  mitis  Michx.  -^    ^^^      *^' ' 

Ran(;e. — From  New  York  (Stateu  Island)  to  Florida  (Chattahoochee  region)  and 
west  to  soutberu  Missouri,  eastern  Indian  Territory,  and  northeastern  Texas. 

Names  in  use.— Yellow  Pine  (N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  N.  C,  Ala., 
Miss.,  La.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Kans.  (scarce), (Ohio,  Eng.  lit.);  Short- 
leaved  Pine  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  Fla.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.) ;  Spruce 
Pine{l)el.,  Miss.,  Ark.);  Bull  Pine  (V^a.);  Shortsbat  Pine  (Del.);  Pitch 
Pine  (Mo.);  Poor  Pine  (Fla.);  Shortleaved  Yellow  Pine;  Rosemary  Pine 
(N.  C);  Virginia  Yellow  Pine  (V^a.,in  part);  North  Carolina  Yellow 
Pine  (N.  C.  and  Va.,  in  part);  North  Carolina  Pino  (N.  C.  and  Va.,  in 
part);  Carolina  Pine  (N.  C.  and  Va.,  in  part);  Slash  Pine  (N.  C,  Va., 
in  part) ;  Oldtield  Pipe  (Ala.,  Miss.). 


urtliern  Indiana  a 

Vlich,  Minn        *7 

III     rnn!wln\-  ^^*fJ9y 


19 

Pinus  glabra  Walt.  Spruce  Pine. 

Rangk. — Coast  rejLjion,  from  South  Carolina  (between  latitude  31^  and  33^)  to 
Florida  (Cbattahoocliee  region)  and  west  to  Louisiana  (Pearl  Kiver). 

Names  in  use.— Si)ruce  Tine  (S.C,  Ala.,  Fhi.);  Cedar  Pine  (Miss.); 
White  rine(S.C.,Fla.);  Walter's  riiie(S.C.);  Lowlaud  Spruce  Pine 
(Fla.);  Poor  Pine  (Fla.);  Kinj;stree  (S.  C). 

Pinus  divaricata  (Ait.)  Dii  Mout  tie  Cours.   -^^   /      -     Jack  Pine.    A 
Pinus  i?anksiana  Lamb.  ^^Ua^mT^^^^  ^  7^^'t^-«Tyi  ^  ^tMii/Jf^ 

Rangk. — New  Brunswick  to  New  Hampshire  and  west  through  Great  Lake  and 
Hudson  Bay  (sontlieiu  shores i  region  to  Great  Bear  Lake,  Mackenzie  Rive»-,  and 
Rocky  Mountains;  sonlh  into  northern  Maine,  northern  New  York,  northern  Indiana 
and  Illinois,  and  central  Minnesota.  fjf^^Jt^       C^O'^AMQ 

Names  in  use.— Scrub  Pine  (Me.,  Vt.,  N.  Y.,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Minn!,', 
Out.);  Gray  Pine  (Vt.,  Minn.,  Out.);  Jack  Pine  (Mich.,  Minn.,  Canada); 
Priuces  Pine  (Ont.);  iJlack  Jack  Pine  (Wis.);  Black  Pine  (Minn.); 
Cypress  (Quebec  to  Hudson  Bay);  Canada  Horn  cone  Pine  (Cal.  lit.); 
Chek  Pine;  Sir  Joseph  Bank's  Pine  (Eng.);  ''Juniper"  (Canada);  Bank- 
sian  Pine  (lit.).  ,      . 

Pinus  palustris  M ill.     \MiruJU\JrOfy  ^^Mh^A^oii^a^^me.  VHf^ 

Range. — Coast  region,  from  southern  Virginia  (Norfolk)  to  Florida  (TariiiialBay  n. 
and  Cape  Canaveral)  to  eastern  Texas  (Trinity  River) ;  northward  in  Alabama  to  the   J^^^' 
northeastern  part  of  the    State  (Clay  and   Walker  counties),  and  northwestern  A^-^ 
(border  counties)  Georgia.  ^ 

Names  in  use.— Lono-leaved  Pine  (Va.,  N.C.,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  j!^^ 
Miss.,  La.,  Tex.);  Southern  Pine  (N.  C,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.);  Yellow  PineJ?M? 
(Del.,  N.C.,  S.C.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  La.,  Tex.);  Turpentine  Pine  (N.C.);  Rose-^*te77^ 
mary  Pine  (N.  C);  Brown  Pine  (Tenn.);  Hard  Pine  (Ala.,  Miss.,  La.);  ""■ 
Georgia  Pine  (general,  Del.);  Fat  Pine  (Southern  States);  Southern      ' 
Yellow  Pine  (general);  Soutliern  Hard  Pine  (general);  Southern  Heart 
Pine  (general);  Southern  Pitch  Pine  (general);  Heart  Pine  (N.  C.  and 
South  Atlantic  region);   Pitch   Pine   (Atlantic  region);   Louglcaved 
Yellow  Pine  (Atlantic  region);   Longleaved  Pitch  Pine  (Atlantic  re- 
gion); Longstraw  Pine  (Atlantic  region);  North  Carolina  Pitch  Piue 
(Va.,  N.  C);  Georgia  Yellow  Pine  (Atlantic  region);  Georgia  Heart 
Piue  (general);  Georgia  Longleaved  Pine  (Atlantic  region);  Georgia 
Pitch  Pine  (Atlantic  region);  Florida  Yellow  Pine  (Athmtic  region); 
Florida  Pine   (Atlantic  region);   Florida  Longleaved  Pine  (Athintic 
region);  Texas  Yellow  Pine  (Atlantic  region);  Texas  Longleaved  Pine 
(Atlantic  region). 

Pinus  heterophylla  (Ell.)  Sudworth.    C^>uiuyiC\,         Cuban  Pine. 
Pinus  cubensis  Griseb. 

Rangk. — Coast  region  (60  to  100  miles  inland),  from  South  Carolina  (Charleston) 
to  southern  Florida  (CapS  Canaveral  and  Biscayne  Bay)  and  west  to  Louisiana 
(Pearl  River). 

Names  in  use. — Slash  Pine  (Ala.,  Miss.,  Ga.,  Fla.);  Swamp  Pine 
(Fla.,  Miss.,  Ala.,  in  part);  Bastard  Pine  (Ala.  luinberinen,  Fla.); 
Meadow  Pine  (Fla.,  eastern  Miss.,  in  part);  I'itch  Pine  (Fla.);  She 
Pitch  Piue  (Ga.);  She  Piue  (Ga.,  Fla.);  Spruce  Piue  (southeru  Ala.). 


r       Larix  laricina  (Du  Roi)  Koch.  '"''  Tamarack, 

LARIX  AMERICANA  Michx. 
Ranuk.— From  Newfoundland  and  T^abrador  to  northern  Pennsylvania,  northrrn 
Indiana,    Illinois,    central  Minnesota,  and   northwestward   to    Hudson    Bay    (Cape 
Churchill,  Great  P>ear  Lake,  and  Mackenzie  River)  (in  Arctic  Circle). 

Names  in  use.— Larch  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Coun.,  N.  Y.,  E.  J.,  Pa., 
Del.,  Wis.,  Miun.,  Ohio,  Out.,  Miun.) ;  Tamarack  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass., 
li.  I.,  K.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Ind.,  111.,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  Ohio,  Ont.);  Hack- 
matack (Me.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  li.  I.,  Del.,  111.,  Minn.,  Ont);  American  Larch 
(Vt.,  Wis.,  nurserymen);  Juniper  (Me,  N.  Bruns.  to  Hudson  Bay); 
Black  Larch  (Minn.);  Epinette  Rouge  (Quebec);  Ka  neh-tens="The 
leaves  fall"  (Indians,  IST.  Y.);  Red  Larch  (Mich.);  Hacmack  (lit.). 

Larix  occidentalis  Nutt.  Western  Larch. 

Range. — Southern  British  Columbia  (south  of  latitude  53)  and  south  in  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains  to  the  Columbia  River,  and  to  western  ^lontana;  also  in  Blue 
Mountains  of  Washington  and  Oregon. 

Names  in  use. — Tamarack  (Oreg.);  Hackmatack;  Larch  (Idaho, 
Wash.,  etc.);  Red  American  Larch ;  Western  Tamarack;  Great  West- 
ern Larch  (Cal.  lit.);  Western  Larch  (Eug.) 

Larix  lyallii  I*arl.  Alpine  Larch. 

Range.— High  mountains  (6,000  to  7,000  feet)  of  northwestern  States,  from  Mon- 
tana to  Washington  and  Oregon,  and  northward  in  adjacent  territory.  Range  imper- 
fectly known. 

Names  in  use.— Tamarack  (Idaho,  Wash.,  Oreg.);  Larch  (Idaho, 
Wasa.,  Oreg.);  Mountain  Larch;  Lya^'s  Laych  (lit.);^  Woollj^  Larch 
(Cal.  lit).  n 


Black  Spruce. 


Picea  mariana  (iMill.)  B.  S.  P.  a        It  .    J^I 

PiCEA  NIGRA   Link.<i,f*X^tA>»ft/>     4^'''^^''^ 


Range. — Newfoundland  to  Hudson  Bay  and  northwestward  to  the  Mackenzie 
River;  southward  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  in  the  eastern  mountains 
to  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee. 

Names  in  use. — Black  Spruce  (N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa., 
W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  Ont.,  Eng.);  Double  Spruce 
(Me.,  Vt.;  Minn.);  Blue  Spruce  (Wis.);  Spruce  (Vt);  White  Spruce 
(W.  Va.  ;  Yew  Pine  (\V.  Va,);  Juniper  (N.  C);  Spruce  Pine  (W.  Va., 
Pa.);  E3Balsam(Del.,  N.  C);  Epinette  Jaune  (Quebec);  Water  Spruce 
(Canada,  Me.). 

VARIETIES   DISTINGUISHED    IN   CULTIVATION. 

Picea  mariana  doumetti  (Carr.)  Beis.sn. 

Picea  mariana  pumila  (Carr.)  Sudw. 

Picea  mariana  humilis  Sudw. 

Picea  mariana  argenteo-variegata  (Beissu.)  Sudw. 

Picea  mariana  aurescens  Sudw. 

Picea  mariana  albescens  Sudw. 


21 

4 

Picea  rubens  Sargent.  Red  Spruce. 

PiCEA  RUBRA.  Diet. 
Kaxgk. — Nova  Scotia  to  North  Caiolina  and  Tennessee.    Range  imperfectly  known. 

Names  in  use. — lied  Spruce;  Yellow  Spruce  (N.  Y.);  North  Ameri- 
can Red  Spruce  (foreign  lit.). 

VARIETIES   DISTINGUISHED  IN   CULTIVATION. 

Picea  rubens  coerulea  (Loud.)  nom.  nov. 

PiCEA  RUBRA  ccERULEA  (LoiuT.)  Forbes. 
Picea  rubens  peudula  (Carr.)  iiom.  nov. 

PiCEA  RUBRA  PENDUX^  Carr. 
Picea  rubeus  gracilis  (Knight)  nom.  nov. 

Picea  rubra  gracilis  (Knight)  Carr. 

Ficea  canadensis  (Mill.)  B.  S.  P.  White  Spruce. 

Picea  alba  Liuk. 

Raxgk. — Newfouudhmd  to  Hudson  Buy  and  northwestward  to  Alaska;  southward 
to  northern  New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  South  Dakota,  Montana, 
and  British  Coliinibia, 

Names  in  use. — White  Spruce  (Yt.,  N.  H.,  ]\rass.,  N.  Y.,  Wis.,  Mich., 
Minn.,  Out.);  Single  Spruce  (-Me.,  Yt.,  Minn.);  Bog  Spruce  (New  Eiig.); 
Skunk  Spruce  (Wis.,  Me.,  New  Eng.,  Out.);  Oat  Spruce  (Me.,  New 
Eng.);  Spruce  (Yt.),  Pine  (Hudson  Bay);  Double  Spruce  (Yt.). 

VARIETIES  distinguished   IX   CULTIVATION. 

Picea  canadensis  glauca  (Moench.)  Sudw. 

Picea  canadensis  acutissima  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 

Picea  canadensis  compressa  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 

Picea  canadensis  nana  (Loud.)  Sudw. 

Picea  canadensis  nana  glaucifolia  Sudw. 

Picea  canadensis  echinoformis  (Carr.)  Sudw. 

Picea  canadensis  compacta  gracilis  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 

Picea  canadensis  compressiforniis  Sudw. 

Picea  canadensis  nutans  Sudw. 

Picea  canadensis  aurea  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 

Picea  engelmanni'  Eugelm.  Engelmann  Spruce. 

Raxgk. — Northern  Arizona  and  tbrougli  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  to  British 
Columbia. 

Names  in  use.— Engelmaun's  Spruce  (Utah);  Balsam  (Utah);  White 
Spruce  (Oreg.,  Colo.,  Utah,  Idaho);  White  Pine  (Idaho);  Mountain 
Spruce  (Mont.);  Arizona  Spruce  (Cal.  lit.). 

VARIETIES    distinguished    IX   CULTIVATION. 

Picea  eng:elinanni  griseifolia  Sudw. 
Picea  engelmanni  argyrophylla  Sudw. 
Picea  engelmanni  minutifolia  Sudw. 

Picea  parryana  (Andre)  Parry.  Blue  Spruce. 

Picea  pungens  Eugelm.    > 

Raxge. — Ceutral  Rocky  Mountain  region — Colorado,  ITtali,  and  Wyoming. 

Names  in  use. — Parry's  Spruce  (Utah);  Blue  Si)ruce  (Colo.);  Spruce; 
Balsam  (Colo.,  Utah);  White  Spruce  (Utah,  Colo.);  Silver  Spruce 
(Colo.);  Colorado  Blue  Spruce  (Colo.);  Prickly  Spruce  (lit.) 

'Prof.  J.  G.  Lemmon  has  recently  described  the  following  as  distinct  from  the 
Engelmann  Spruce:  Picea columbiana  Lemm.  (==  P.  engelmanni  Engelm.  in  part). 


22 


VAKIETIES   DISTINGUISHED   IN    CULTIVATION. 


Picea  parryana  glaucescens  iioin.  nov. 

PlCKA    PL'NC-KNS   GLAUCK-SCr.X.S    Suilw. 

Picea  parryana  cyaiiea  noni.  nov. 

PlClCA    PUNGKNS    CVANEA    Siulw., 

Picea  parryana  argentea  (Heissii.)  nom.  nov 

PlCKA    rUNC.EXS    ARGKXTKA    IJeissU. 

Picea  parryana  glauca  pendens  nom.  nov. 
Picea  iTNtJiiiS  glauca  i4;nubxs  Sudw 


^l^^dtf  W{>^  Vrn^ 


Picea  sitchen^  (Bons.)  Ti^utv.  &  Mayer.  '  Sitka  Spruce. 

Kaxgk. — Const  region  (extending  inland  about  50  miles)  from  Alaska  to  northern 
California  (Mendocino  County). 

Names  in   use. — Tideland   Spruce  (Cal.,  Oreg.,  Wash.);  Menzies' 
Spruce;  Western  Spruce;  Great  Tidelaud  Sjiruce  (Cal.  lit.). 
Picea  breweriana  Wats.  Weeping  Spruce. 

Raxgk. — Northern  California  (Siskiyou  Mountains),  very  local,  and  southern 
Oregon. 

Names  in  use. — Weeping  Spruce;  Brewer's  Spruce;  Siskiyou 
Si>ruce '^Germ.  lit.).^  M  jA  a 

Tsuga  canadensis  (Linn.)  Carr.  Hemlock. 

Kan GK.— Nova  Scotia  to  Minnesota  (Carleton  Connty),  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  and 
Bouthwiird  in  the  Atlantic  region  along  the  mountains  to  northern  Alabama  (Winston 
County)  and  Ceorgin. 

Names  in  use.— Hemlock  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  E.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y., 
N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ky.,  Wis.,  Midi.,  Minn.,  Ohio,  Ont); 
Hemlock  Spruce  (Yt.,  E.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  :N.  J.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C, 
England,  cult.);  Spruce  (Pa.,  W.  Va.);  Spruce  Pine  (r'a.,  Del.,  Va., 
N.  C,  Ga.);  Oh-neh-tah  =  "Greens  on  the  stick"  (N.  Y.  Indians); 
Canadian  Hemlock  (lit.);  New  England  Hemlock  (lit.). 


VAHIETIES   DISTINGUISHED   IN   CULTIVATION. 


Tsuga  canadensis  pumila  Sndw. 

Tsuga  canaden.sis  compacta  minima  Sudw. 

Tsuga  canadensis  globosa  Heissn. 

Tsuga  canadensis  gracilis  Carr. 

Tsuga  canadensis  milfordeusis  Nichol. 

Tsuga  canadensis  erecta  Sudw. 

Tsuga  canadensis  columnaris  Beissn. 

Tsuga  canadensis  macrophylla  Beissn. 

Tsuga  canadensis  paucifolia  Sndw. 

Tsuga  canadensis  microphylla  Beissn. 

Tsuga  canadensis  parvifolia  (Veitch)  Beissn. 

Tsuga  canadensis  pendula  !*>eissn. 

Tsuga  canadensis  aurea  Beissn. 

Tsuga  canadensis  albo-spica  (Oord.)  Beissn. 

Tsuga  canadensis  argenteo-variegata  Sudw. 

Tsuga  canadensis  argentifolia  Sudw. 


23 

Tsuga  caroliniana  Engelm.  Carolina  Hemlock. 

Rax(;k. — Moiiirtuiiis  of  southwestern  Virginia,  western  Nortli  Curoliiia,  and  north- 
ern Georgia:  very  local. 

Names  in  use.— Hemlock  (N.  C,  S.  O.);  Southern  Hemlock  (lit.). 

Tsuga  heterophylla  (liaf.)  Siirueiit.  Western  Hemlock. 

Tsuga  mkrtknsiana  authors,  not  Carr. 
Kaxgk. — Alaska  to  Idalio  and  Montana  and  southward  (in  the  Cascade  and  coast 
ranges)  to  California  (Marin  County). 

Names  in  use.— Hemlock  Spruce  (Cal.  ;  Western  Hemlock  (Cal.); 
Hemlock  (Oreg.,  Idaho,  Wash.);  Western  Hemlock  Si)ruce  (lit.);  Cali- 
fornia Hemlock  Si»ruce:  Western  Hemlock  Fir  (En.u.);  Prince  Albert's 
Fir  (Eng.);  Alaska  Pine  (Northwestern  lumbermen). 

VARIETY   DISTINGUISHED    IN   CULTIVATION. 

Tsuga  heterophylla  latifolia  noni.  nov. 

TsCGA  MKRTEXSIANA  LATIFOLIA  Sudw. 

Tsuga  mertensiana  (Bong.)  Carr.  Black  Hemlock. 

Tsuga  pattoniana  (.Jeff'r.)  Engelm. 

RaX(;e. — Northern  Briti.sh  Columbia  to  Idaho  and  northern  Montana,  and  south- 
ward to  California  (Sierra  Nevada  Mountains) ;  usually  above  10,000  feet;  at  sea  level 
only  in  region  of  Sitka. 

Names  in  use. — VV^illiamson's  Spruce  (Cal.);  Weeping  Spruce  (Cal.); 
Alpine  Spruce  (Cal.);  Hemlock  Spruce  (Cal.);  Patton's  Spruce;  Alpine 
Western  Spruce. 

Tsuga  mertensiana  hookeriana(Carr.)  nom.iiov.   Hooker  Hemlock. 
Tsuga  pattoniana  hookeriana  (Carr.)  Lemraon. 

VARIETY   DISTINGUISHED   IN   CULTIVATION. 

Tsuga  mertensiana  argentea  (Beissn.)  nom.  nov. 

TSUGA   PATTOXIANA    AUGEXTEA  BelsSH. 

7>^t  n/.^MAi^  /•  PSEUDOTSUGA  Carr. 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  '  (Lam.)  Britton.  Douglas  Spruce. 

PsEUDOTSUGA  DouGLASii  Carr. 

Range. — From  the  Kocky  Mountain  region  (in  United  States)  and  northward  to 
central  British  Columbia;  Pacific  coast. 

Names  in  use. — Red  Fir  (Oreg.,  Wash.,  Idaho,  Utah,  Mont.,  Colo.); 
Douglas  Spruce  (Cal.,  Colo.,  Mont.);  Douglas  Fir  (Utah,  Oreg.,  CrL).); 

'  Douglas  Spruce  ( I'nendotsuqa  faxifolia  vs.  rscudotmiga  nincrotiata). — The  retention 
of  the  specific  term  laxifolia  in  the  j;cnus  I'l^cudolsuga  is  held  by  some  botanists  to  be 
at  variance  with  the  meanini;-  of  the  law  excluding  the  use  of  synonyms  and  houio- 
uynis.  Lambert  first  described  the  Douglas  Spruce  as  /'/hhs /flJ-i/o?i«  (Pinus  ed.  1, 
51,  t.  33)  in  1803,  not  knowing  that  in  17!J6  Salisbury  had  already  described  another 
coniferous  tree,  a  trus  (ir  and  now  known  as  Abies  balaatnea  (L.)  Mill.,  as  J'hiiis  taxi- 
folia.  At  this  point,  according  to  bot  inical  laws  now  observed,  the  Douglas  Spruce 
was  witiiout  a  name,  since  8ui)posing  the  tree  to  be  a  true  pine,  there  could  exist  but 
one  Pinns  laxifolia  and  that  one  only  the  earlier,  or  Finns  taxifolia  Salisbury  (1796). 
So  far  as  is  known  Poiret  (in  Lamarck,  Enc.  Mcth.  Bot.,  vi,  523)  was  the  next  to 
describe  this  tree  iu  1804,  Jiuder  the  following  designation:  "Ahiea  laxifolia  Lam- 
bert."    But  as  we  know  Lambert  did  not  write  "Abies  tojifolia."  but  Pinu8  taxifolia, 


24 

Yellow  Fir  I Orejj.,  Mont.,  Idaho,  Wash.);  Spruce  (Mont.);  Fir  (Mont.); 
Oregon  Pine   (Cal.,  Wash.,  Oreg);    Rod   Pine  (Utali,  Idaho,  Colo.); 
Puger.   Sound     Pine    (Wash.);    Douglas-tree;    Corlc-barked    Douglas 
Si)ruee  (var,  snberosa  Lennu.). 
Pseudotsuga taxifolia pendula  (Kngelin.)  Sudwoith. 

Weeping  Douglas  Spruce 

VAKIKTIKS       DISTINCUISllEl)    IX    CL'l.TI  NATION. 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  peudula  caerulea  Siidw. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  glauca  (Heissa. )  8'-idw. 
Ps3udotsuga  taxifolia  fastigiata  (Kmglit)  Sudw. 

tlio  Abies  taxifolia  must  be  taken  as  original  with  Poiret,  and  is  the  first  name  in  the 
phint's  history  Avhich  coiihl  be  considered  tenable,  as  there  is  none  other  like  it  in 
form.  Kalinesqne,  however,  subsequently  describeil  the  Douglas  Spruce  under  ttill 
another  nauu',  Abies  mucronata  (Atl.  .Journ.,  120,  1832),  which  briugs  us  to  the  point 
of  controversy. 

Now,  this  tree  at  present  being  considered  a  Pseudotsuga,  shouhl  l)ear  its  earliest 
specific  name  in  combination.  It  is  here  luaiutained  that  this  combinat  inn  should  lie 
l's(udotsn(ja  taxifolia  (Poir.)  Brittou,  founded  on  the  (irst  tenable  name  ajiplied  to 
the  plant,  tliat  is,  Abies  taxifolia  Poiret  (I.e.).  It  is  held  by  others,  however,  that 
I'scitdoisiKja  miieronata  (Raf.)  Suilworth  should  be  maintained,  as  I  myself  did  at  one 
time,  to  the  exclusion  of  Pseudot'<iiga  taxifolia.  Tiiose  opposing  the  use  of  the  latter 
name  base  their  objection  f)n  the  argunumt  that  it  is  founded  on  a  synonym  {Abies 
taxifolid)  derived  from  the  homonym  Piinis  taxifolia  Lambert  (1803),  which  is,  to  be 
sure,  invalidated  by  Piiins  taxifolia  Salisbury  (1796).  Clearly  Pjh»8  taxifolia  Lam- 
hi-rt  (1803)  is  an  inert  name  to  which  no  ilerivative  reference  can  bo  made.  The  sup- 
position, however,  that  Abies  taxifolia  Poiret  (1804),  being  fiuinded  or  derived  by 
Poiret  from  the  homonym  Pimis  taxifolia  Lambert,  renders  the  former  name  unten- 
able, is  lielieved  to  be  an  entirely  erroneous  interpretation  of  the  meaning  of  the 
law  touthing  this  mooted  <iuestion.  For,  so  far  as  is  known,  and  independent  of  its 
supposed  derivation,  Abies  tarifolia  Poiret  (1804)  is  the  first  name  in  form  of  its  kind- 
proposed,  and  is  therefore  inviolable.  Moreover,  the  ]iri)of  that  Abies  taxifolia  Poiret 
is  actually  derived  from  the  homonym  Pinus  taxifolia  Lambert,  and  therefore  unten- 
able, is  faulty,  b(;causo  Lambert  is  (juoteil  (by  Poiret,  1.  c.)  as  writing  wliat  he  did 
not  write.  But  from  still  another  point  of  view  and  disregarding  tho  taxonomic 
relationsbij)  of  Pseudotsiif/a  tarifolia  with  Abies  taxifolia  Poiret,  were  Pseudotsuga  taxi- 
folia not  now  in  existence,  no  one  could  deny  that  according  to  present  practice 
the  name  could  be  create!  and  applied  for  any  other  species  of  Pseudotsuga.  It  must 
stand  because  it  would  be  the  lirst  and  only  oneof  its  tyi)e  ])ub]ished.  For  the  same 
reason  tho  speciHe  term  taxifolia  .^^eems  perfectly  tenable  for  the  Douglas  Spruce, 
as  it  conflicts  with  no  other  like  specific  or  varietal  term  in  the  genus  Pseudotsuga. 

It  would  appear  that  the  essential  point  in  tho  application  of  the  law  preventing 
the  u.se  of  diqiliiate  or  .synonymous  names  and  terms  should  be  strictly  a  mechanical 
one,  reganljfcss  of  any  synthetic  relationship  which  may  exist  between  names. 

Prof.  J.  G.  Leminon  lias  ])roposed  the  following  varieties  of  the  Douglas  .^jiruie, 
which  are  as  yet  unknown  to  me  in  nature  : 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  var.  subciosa  Lemin. — SiiihII  tree,  disrin.;;uished  by  its  thick, 
corky  bark,  thin  f(diage,  and  small  ovate  cones,  1  to  2  inches  long,  and  found  (tn  the 
juincipal  mountains  of  northern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  \nv.  elougaia  Lemm. — Distinguished  Sy  its  ''comparatively 
thin,  whitish  (outside),  shallow-furrowed  bark  ami  conspicuous,  long,  narrow,  yel- 
lowish, shiny  cones,  3V  to  4i  inches  long  and  one-fifth  as  thick,  with  com))aratively 
.short  bracts  and  thin,  soft  scales."     Found  at  ba^^e  of  Mount  Hood,  Oregon. 

Pseudotsuga  mucronafa  var.  pnluslris  Lemm  {^=  Abies  mueronata  var.  iialuslrix  Raf.). — 
Ralinesque  founded  this  form  on  the  following:  "  Grows  in  swamps,  only  30feet  high, 
and  with  sjireading  branches,"  Said  to  oecur  in  the  region  of  the  lower  roliimbia 
River. 


25 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  standlshiana  (Gor<l.)  Sudw. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  duniosa  (Carr.)  Smhv. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  compacta  (Beissii.)  Sndw. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  elegans  (Heissi).)  Sudw. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  argentea  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 
PGsudotsuga  taxifolia  argentea  deusa  Sudw. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  variegata  (McDon.)  Sudw, 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  stairi  (Beissu.)  Sudw. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifclia  brsvifolia  (Hort.  Kew.)  Sudw. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  revoluta  (Hort.  Kew.)  Sudw. 

Pseudotsuga  macrocarpa  (Ton.)  Mayr.  Bigcone  Spruce 

Kange. — Soutlieru  Caliluruia  (Sau  Bernardino  Mountains  to  tin*  Cuyaiiiaca  Mouo- 

tains). 

Xames  in  use.— Spruce  (Cal.);  Hemlock  (Cal.);  Bigcone  Spruce 
(lit.)  ;|BigconevDpuglas  Spruce  (lili).  >*  i    -  /) 

Abies  fraseri  (Pursli)  Lindl.  T  ^  Fraser  Fir.  Xf^^ 

liAXGK. — ^louutaius  of  North  Carolina  and  Teunessee. 

Xames  in  use.— Balsam  (N.  C,  Temi.);  Balsam  Fir  (N.  C);  Double 
Fir  Balsam  (Tcnn.);  Double  Spruce  (X.  C);  She  Balsam  (N.  C);  She 
Balsam  Fir  (N.  C);  Mountain  Balsam  (N.  C);  Healing-  Balsam. 
Abies  balsamea  (Linn.)  j\Iill.  Balsam  Fir. 

Range. — From  Xewfouudland  and  Labrador  to  Hudson  Baj^  and  northwestward 
to  Great  Bear  Lake  region,  and  south  to  Pennsylvania  (and  along  high  mountains 
to  Virginia),  Michigan,  and  ^linnesota. 

Xames  in  use. — Balsam  Fir  (X.  H,,  Vt.,  Mass.,  K.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa., 
W.  Va.,  Wis.,  Micb.,  Minn.,  Xebr.,  Ohio,  Ont.;  Fng.cult.);  Balsam  (Vt., 
N.  H.,  ^.Y.);  Canada  Balsam  (X.C.);  Balm  of  Gilead  (Del.);  Balm  of 
Gilead  Fir  (X.  Y.,  Pa  );  Blister  Pine  (W.  Va.);  Fir  Pine  (W.  Va.);  Fir- 
tree  (Vfc.);  Single  Spruce  (N.Bruns.  to  Hudson  Bay);  Silver  Pine  (Hud- 
son Bay);  Sapin  (Quebec);  Cho-kob-tung=" Blisters"  (N.  Y,  Indians). 

AARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Abies  balsamea  hudsouia  (Knight)  Veitch. 
Abies  balsamea  brachylepis  Wiilk. 
Abies  balsamea  longifclia  (Loud.)  Endl. 
Abies  balsamea  casrulea  Carr. 
Abies  balsamea  hemisphcerica  Sndw. 
Abies  balzamea  prostrata  (Knight)  Carr. 
Abies  balsamea  paucifolia  Sndw. 
Abies  balsamea  nudicaulis  Carr. 
Abies  balsamea  versicolor  Sndw. 
Abies  balsamea  argeutifolia  Sudw. 

Abies  lasiocarpa  (Hook.)  Nutt.  Alpine  Fir. 

K'ange. — Kocky  Mountain  region  from  Colorado  to  Montaua  an<l  IdiUio,  and  west-- 
ward  tlirough  northern  On-gon  and  northward  toAhisk.fli  latitude  60^). 

Names  in  use. — Sub  Ali)ine  Fir(Utali);  Balsam  (Colo.,  Utnli,  Idaho, 
Greg.);  White  Fir  (Idaho,  Mont.);  White  Balsam;  Oregou  Balsam  tree 


26 

(Cal.);  Pumpkin-tree;  Alpine  Fir;  Mountain  Balsam  (mountains  of 
Utali  and  Idaho);  J)owu-coue  Fir  (lit.);  Downy-ctme  Sub-Alpine  Fir 
(Cal.  lit.;. 

VARIKTY    DISTIXGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Abies  lasiocarpa  caerulescens  (Beissu.)  Sudw. 
Abies  arizonica  ]Merriam.  Arizona  Cork  Fir. 

li'ANCK. — At  j)resent  kuowu  only  from  Arizona  fSiin  Franfiacn-MomitniiisV 

Abies  grandis  Lindl.  Lowland  Fir. 

Raxgk. — Coast  region  from  Vancouver  Island  to  California  (Mendocino  County), 
and  from  Washington  and  Oregon  to  northern  Idaho  and  ^lontana. 

Names  IN  USE. — Wliite  Fir  (Cal.,  Oreg.,  Idaho);  Silver  Fir  (Mont., 
Idiibo);  Yellow  Fir  (IMont.,  Idaho') ;  Ore^^on  White  Fir  (Cal.);  Western 
White  Fir;  Grand  or  Oregon  White  Fir  (Cal.  lit.);  Great  California 

Fir  (lit.). 

VAIUETIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Abies  grandis  aurifolia  Sudw. 
Abies  grandis  crassa  Sudw. 

Abies  concolor  (Gortl.)  Parry.  White  Fir. 

IvANcii:. — Oregon  (Siskiyou  ^lountaina)  to  southern  California  (San  Bernardino 
County);    northern    Arizona  and    New   Mexico   to   Colorado   and    Utah    (Wasatch 

Mountains). 

Names  in  use.— White  Fir  (Cal.,  Idaho,  Utali,  Colo.);  Balsam  Fir 
(Cal.,  Idaho,  Colo.);  Silver  Fir  (Cal.);  Balsam  (Cal.);  White  Balsam 
(Utah);  Bastard  Pine  ([Jtah);  Balsam  tree  (Idaho);  Black  Gum 
(Utah);  California  White  Fir  (Cal.);  Colorado  White  Fir  (Cal.  lit.); 
Concolor  Silver  Fir  (Eng.  lit.). 

VARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED   IN   CULTIVATION. 

Abies  concolor  pendens  (Beissn. )  Sudw. 

Abies  concolor  varia  Sudw. 

Abies  concolor  purpurea  Sudw. 

Abies  concolor  purpurea  compressa  Sudw. 

Abies  concolor  angustata  Sudw. 

Abies  concolor  lo^viana  (Murr.)  Lcmmon.         Pale-leaf  White  Fir. 

liAM.K. — California  (Sierra  Nevada  Mountains)  and  southern  Oregon  (Siskiyou 
Mountains). 

Names  in  use.— Pale-leaved  White  Fir  (Oal.  lit.);  California  White 
Fir. 

Abies  venusta  (Dougl.)  Koch,     -^y-- -^^^^jj^- U^        Bristle-cone  Fir. 

Ka.\(;i;. — Southern  California  (Santa  ^('if-in  ^lonntains  on  the  northern  boundary 
of  San  Luis  Obispo  Cou.ity  and  40  miles  northward). 

Nam  i:s  in  use. — Fringed  Spruce,  Bristle-cone  Fir  (Cal.) ;  Santa  Lucia 

Fir  (Fug.  lit.). 

Abies  amabilis  (Loud.)  Forb.  Amabilis  Fir. 

1\aN(;e. — From  British  Columbia  (Fraser  River  and  southward  in  the  Cascade 
Mountains)  to  Washington  and  Oregon. 

Names  in  use.— Bed  Fir;  Bed  Silver  Fir  (Western  Mountains); 
Fir  (Cal.);  Lovely  Bed  Fir  (Cal.  lit.);  Lovely  Fir  (Cal.  lit.);  Amabilis 
or  Lovely  Fir  (Cal.  lit.);  "Larch"  (Oreg.  lumbermen). 


•2^ 

Abies  nobilis  Lindl.    •A^.-^jouy  ^  4X^e^'^a^  ^^/ftn\  Noble  Fir. 

KaN(;e. — Washington  (coast  mountains  in  sontiiwestern  part  of  State;  Olvnipio 
Mountains  on  !<oUlnc  Kiver;  from  Monnt  Baker  southward  in  the  Cascade  Monn- 
tains)  to  Orejjon  (Browdi  r  Ridge  on  head  waters  of  McKinzic  Kivcr  in  Lane  Connty). 
Kangc  at  present  but  little  known. 

Names  in  use.— Ke\l  Fir  (Oreg:.);  "Larcli''  (Oreg.  lumbermen); 
Noble  Fir  (Oreg.);  Bigtree;  Featber-cone  Keel  Fir  (Cal.  lit.);  Noble  or 
Bracted  Red  Fir  (Cal.  lit.);  Tuck  Tuck  (Pacific  ludiaus). 

^  ARIICTIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Abies  nobilis  glaucifolia  Sndw. 
Abies  nobilis  robustifolia  Sudw. 

Abies  shastensis  Lemmon.  Shasta  Fir. 

Raxgk.— Southern  Oregon  (Cascade  Mountains)  and  California  (Mount  Sliasta, 
Mount  Eddy,  Trinity  Mountain,  Scotts  Mountain).  Range  :is  yet  iusutificieutly 
understood. 

Names  in  use.— Shasta  Red  Fir  (Cal.  lit.);  fehasta  Fir  (Cal.  lit. 

Abies  mas 

Range. — Ci 
Mountains). 

Names  in  use.— Red  Fir  (Cal.);  California  Red-bark  Fir  (Cal.); 
Magnificent  Fir  (Cal.  lit.);  Calitbrnia  Red  Fir  (Cal.  lit.);  Golden  Fir 
(Cal. 


IN  USE. — »Dasra  itea  i^ir  (uai.  iir.);  snasta  i^ir  (Ual.  lit.). 
ignifica  Murr.   J^^'■t^AH|^%  <AK^t\a^  \Afirmk^  Red  Fir. 

California  (Mount  Shasta  and  along  the'^veste^n  slopes  of  Sierra  Nevada, 


'^-'^■^^  ViffllETIES   DISTINGUISHED   IN   CULTIVi 


Abies  magnifica  cyanea  Sndw. 

Abies  magnifica  xanthocarpa  Lemmon.  Yellow-fruit  Fir. 

TAXODIUM  Rich. 
Taxodium  distichum  (Linn.)  Rich.  Bald  Cypress.^ 


r^ 


Range. — From  southern   Delaware  (Sussex  County  and  southwaid  in  the  coast  A/\^j 


region)  to  Florida  (Mosiiuito  Inlet  and  Cape  Romano);  westward  in  the  (uilf  coast 
region  to  Texas  (Devils  River)  and  northward  through  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and 
eastern  Mississippi  and  Tennessee,  .southeastern  Missouri,  western  and  northwestern 
Kentucky,  southern  Illinois,  and  southwestern  Indiana  (Knox  County). 

Names  in  use.— Bald  Cypress  (Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  La.,  Fla.,  Tex., 
Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind.);  White  Cypress  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Miss.);  Black 
Cypress  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Tex.);  Red  Cypress  (Ga.,  Miss.,  La., Tex.); 
Swamp  Cypress  (La.) ;  Gyi)ress  (Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.',  Miss.,  Ky.,  Mo., 
111.);  Deciduous  Cypress  (Del.,  III.,  Tex.);  Southern  Cypress  (AlaJ. 

w 

VARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED   IN    CULTIVATION. 

Taxodium  distichum  pendulum  (Forb.)  Carr. 
Taxodium  distichum  pendulum  elegans  Beissu. 
Taxodium  distichum  pendulum  novum  Beissn. 
Taxodium  distichum  patens  (Ait.)  Endl. 
Taxodium  distichum  denudatum  Carr. 
Taxodium  distichum  imbricarium  (^^utt.)  Sarg. 
Taxodium  distichum  knighti  Carr. 
Taxodium  distichum  pyramidatum  Carr. 


*\*. 


28 

Taxodium  distichum  microphyllum  (Brong.)  Ilenk.  an<l  H.xrhst. 
Taxodium  distichuni  intermedium  Carr. 
Taxodium  disticlium  iiauum  Carr. 
Taxodium  distichum  nigrum  Gord. 

SEQUOIA  Eiidl. 

(j^-jSequoia  washingtoniana '  (Winsl.)  Sudworth.  Bigtree. 

ytiiJC^        Sequoia  gigantea  Decaisne. 

JjVi^  Hangk. — Cnliforuia   (I'rom  latitude  39^  to  a  little  south  of  latitude  36",  that  is, 

J)  *j^f^^^roui  luiddle  fork  of  American  River  and  along  the  western  slope  of  Sierra  Nevada 

Mountains  to  the  head  waters  of  Deer  Creek). 

Names  in  use. — Sequoia  (Cnl,);  Bigtree '(Cal.);  Giaut  Sequoia  (Oal.)j 

Mainmotli-tree  (Cal.,  ajid  in  Eng.  cult.) 

VARIETIES   DISTINGUISH KD   IN   CULTIVATION. 

Sequoia  -washingtoniaiia  peudula  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 

Sequoia  washingtoniana  glauca  (Gord.)  Sudw. 

Sequoia  T77ashingtouiaua  aurea  (IJei-sn.)  Sudw. 

Sequoia  •wrashingtoniana  argeutea  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 

Sequoia  ■washingtouiaua  variegata  (Gord.)  Sudw. 

Sequoia  washingtoniana  holmsi  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 

Sequoia  -wrashiugtoniana  glaucescens  p3'^ramido-compacta  Sudw. 

Sequoia  washingtoniana  pygmaea  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 

Sequoia  sempervirens  (Lamb.)  Endl.  Red-wood. 

Range. — From  thb  southern  borders  of  Oregon  (on  Chctco  River,  about  6  miles 
from  moutli,  and  on  Wiuchuck  River),  and  south  ,vard  iu  the  coast  region  (20  to  30 
miles  inland)  through  California  (to  Salmon  Creek  Canyon,  12  miles  south  of  Punta 
Gorda,  Monterey  County).  ' 

Names  in  use. — Redwood  (Cal.  and  Am.  lit.):  Sequoia  (Cal.);  Coast 
Redwood  (Cal.);  California  Redwood  (Eng.  lit.). 


'  BiGTHEE  (.S'er/Ho/a  weUiiigtonia  vs.  Sequoia  wasliin'jtoniana). — It  is  held  by  some  bot- 
anists tliat  since  the  long-used  name  for  this  tri^e,  S.  </i(iantea,  \s  now  excluded  (for 
reasons  shown  below),  S.  ivelliiujlonia  is  the  next  tenable  name,  and  the  reallj'  older 
na,n\(i  S.  nasltiiigtoniatia  should  be  neglected  because  thought  not  to  be  technically 
established.  The  first  name  applied  to  this  tree  is  IVelUngtoma  ghjantta  Lindley 
(London  Gard.  CLrou  ,  820,  823, 1853).  The  second  name  is  Sejiioia  gigatiiea  Decaisne 
(Bull.  Bot.  Soe.  France,  I,  70,  l^S-l).  The  third  name  is  Tarodiitm  Wash inytonian urn 
Winslow  (Calif.  Farmer,  September,  1854).  The  fourth  name  is  Sfijuoia  WellUKjtoina 
Secman  (Bonidandia,  111,27,  18.")5). 

The  Bigtree  is  uo.w  conceded  to  rightly  belong  to  the  genus  Sequoia  of  Endliclier 
(Syn.  Conif.,  147, 1847),  and  the  specific  term  giijanlea  being  the  iirst  applied,  the 
apparently  correct  name  would  be  Sejuoia  giijanlea,  the  name  ai)plied  by  Decaisne 
(1.  c,  1854).  But  this  name  bi-ing  identical  with  one  ])revious\v  applied  by  Endliclier 
in  1847  to  the  (Jalifornia  Redwood,  must,  by  reason  of  being  antedated,  fall  into 
synonymy  and  the  next  oldest  name  be  sought  for  the  Bigtree. 

Passing  over  Wiuslow's  Taxodinm  U'ashiiirjtoiiiannvi.  (1.  c,  1851)  on  the  ground  that 
it  is  thought  not  to  be  properly  published,  some  botanists  would  now  apply  Seeman's 
Sequoia  U'eUinglonia  (I.e.,  1855).  It  is  here  maintained,  however,  that  the  rightl'ul 
name  should  be  Sequoia  washint/loiiiana  (Winslow)  Sudw.,  and  for  the  following 
reasons: 

It  has  been  asserted  that  2'axodium  IVaahingtoniannm  Winslow  (I.e.,  1854)  is  tech- 
nically unpublished,  and  therefore  to  be  disregarded.     The  writer  believes  this  name 


29 

VARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Sequoia  sempervi  en?  gracilis  (/urr 

Sequoia  sempervirens  tazifolia  Carr. 

Se.iuoia  sempervirens  adpressa  Carr. 

Sequoia  sempeivireus  picta  KjUf'.w. 

Sequoia  sempervirens  albo-spica  (Gord.)  Beissn. 

Sequoia  sempervirens  glauca  Gord. 

LIBOCEDRUS  Endl. 
Libocedrus  decurrens  Torr.  Incense  Cedar. 

lv.\X(5K. — From  Or('u:i)ii  (\ortli  Fork  of  Santiain  Kiver  and  south  ward  on  the 
westeru  slopes  of  tbo  Ciiscade  Monntaiiis);  through  California  (\vi\sti'ru  slopes  of 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  and  coast  ranges  from  south(!rn  border  of  Mendocino 
County  to  San  Bernardino,  San  Jacinto,  and  Cuayamaca  mountains);  western 
Nevada;  Lower  California  (Mount  San  Pedro  Marti r). 

Names  in  use.— White  (Jedar  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  Cedar  (Cal.,  Oreg.); 
Inceuse  Cedar  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  Post  Cedar  (Cal.,  Nev.);  Juniper  (Nev.); 
Bastard  Cedar  (Cal.,  Wash.);  Red  Cedar;  California  Post  Cedar  (Cal. 
lit.). 

VARIF.TIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

■    Libocednis  decurrens  depressa  Gord. 
Libocedrus  decurrens  columnaris  Beissn. 
Libocedrus  decurrens  compacta  Beissn. 
Libocedrus  decurrens  glauca  Beissn. 

was  tenably  published,  a  convictioa  which  is  supported  by  the  following  qnotation 
from  Winslow's  published  letter  (1.  c,  1854) : 

"The  name  that  has  been  applied  to  this  tree  by  Professor  Liudley,  an  English 
botanist,  is  Wtllingtonia  (jifjantea."     »     *     * 

"If  the  tree  be  a  Taxodiam,  let  it  be  called  Taxoclium  Wushijigtoniamun.  If  a  new 
genu.s,  irashinjtoiiia  Californica." 

According  to  Article  VI  of  the  Rochester  Code  of  law-s  adopted  for  botanical  nomen- 
clature, Winslow's  Taxodiiim  M'ashUKjtoniauum  in  validly  published  by  reason  of  his 
having  fuliilled  the  essential  conditions  of  the  following  clause  of  Article  VI :  "  Publi- 
cation of  a  species  consists  '  ■  *  (2)  in  the  publishing  of  a  binomial  with  refer- 
ence to  a  previously  published  8[)ecies  as  a  type." 

This  is  a  common  and  expedient  method  employed  by  botanists  in  publishing  new 
names  for  plants  found  to  have  been  previously  characterized  under  synonyms, 
which  results  in  duplicate  names  in  the  same  genus,  and  therefore  often  leaves  a 
plant  without  a  tenable  name.  The  method  of  referring  to  the  "])revion8ly  pub- 
lished species  as  a  type  "is  u.sually  tojiriut  such  species'  name  and  author  in  connec- 
tion with  the  newly  proposed  name,  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  two  designations 
are  seen  to  be  presented  as  e  juivalents,  the  one  to  replace  the  other. 

Now,  since  WeUin'jionia  giganten  Lindley  is  a  recognized  "previously  published 
species,"  it  would  seem  undeniable  that  Winslow's  intention  w:is  to  supphiut  Lind- 
ley's  name  by  Taxodium  M'ashingtouiannm — entirely,  of  course,  because  his  American 
patriotism  preferred  that  an  Am(Mi(an  monster  tree  siiould  bear  the  name  of  an 
American  rather  than  that  of  an  English  general.  It  is  maintained  here  that  Wins- 
low  definitely  pointed  out  the  tree  he  h:i<l  in  nnnd  by  stating  that  Liudley  had  called 
it  Jrei/m(7<0HJa  i/if^ttJjfea  (an  nudisputably  published  name),  and  that  he  effected  the 
I>ublication  of  laxodinm  llaxliiiKitoiiiauiim  for  this  tree  by  jjroposing  this  name  as  a 
substitute  for  Liudley 's  name. 

In  interpreting  the  fundamental  object  of  the  arti(;le  cited  ibr  the  publication  of 
species  and  appl\ing  it  to  all  cases  likely  to  arise,  it  would  seen;  the  duty  of  the 
interpreter  to  al)ide  l)y  the  princii)l(!  involved  in  the  law,  an<l  to  be  influenced  rather 
by  the  actual  meaning  of  a  describi-r's  combined  words  than  by  his  unfortunate  lack 
of  technical  procedure  in  descrii)tion. 


r  TTTTT.T> 


30 
THUJA  Linn. 


Thuja  occidentalis  Liiiii.  Arborvitae. 

Kaxgk. — Fri)in  Xew  Hrnuswick  to  Lake  Winnipeg  and  south  to  central  Minne- 
sota and  Micbi^an,  northern  Illinois,  and  in  the  Atlantic  region  along  the  mountains 
to  North  Carolina  and  eastern  TennL-ssco  (Holston  Kiver). 

NA3IES  IN  USE, — Arborvit;e  (Me.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  It.  I.,  Conn.,  IT.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  Ind.,  111.,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  Ohio,  Ont.);  White 
Cedar  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Yt.,  11. 1.,  Mass.,  JST.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Ya.,  N.  C,  Wis.,  Mich., 
Minn.,  Out);  Cedar  (Me.,  Yt.,  N.  Y.);  American  Arborvitai  (N.  Y. 
and  iu  cult.  Eng.);  Oo-soo-lia-tah=Feather-leaf  (Indians);  Yitae  (Del.); 
Atlantic  lied  Cedar  (Cal.  lit.). 

VAIJIETIKS    DISTIXGUISHKD    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Thuja  occidentalis  ell'wangeriana  ((4ord.)  Heissn. 

Tauja  occidentalis  spaethi  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  wareaua  Gord. 

Thuja  occidentalis  Tj^areana  lutescens  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  wareana  globosa  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  densa  Gord. 

Thuja  occidentalis  A?7althameusis  Gord. 

Thuja  occidentalis  fastigiata  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  fastigiata  nova  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  I'haveana  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  rosenthali  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  viridis  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  theodonensis  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  tatarica  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  riverii  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidsutalis  Vervaeneana  Gord. 

Thuja  occidentalis  lutea  Veitch. 

Thuja  occidentalis  lutea  humilis  Sudw. 

Thuja  occidentalis  aurea  Goi"d. 

Thuja  occidentalis  varia  Sudw. 

Thuja  occidentalis  pendula  Gord. 

Thuja  occidentalis  pendula  glaucescens  Sudw. 

Thuja  occidentalis  reflexa  Carr. 

Thuja  occidentalis  bodnieri  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  athrotaxoides  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  recurvata  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  recurvata  argenteo-variegata  Beieen. 

Thuja  occidentalis  recurva  puslla  Sudw. 

Thiija  occidentalis  denudata  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  asplenifolia  Carr. 

Thuja  occidentalis  gracilis  (Jord. 

Thuja  occidentalis  filicoides  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  cristata  Gord. 

Thuja  occidentalis  boothi  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  globosa  Gord. 

Thuja  occidentalis  globularis  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  hoveyi  Gord. 

Thuja  occidentalis  spihlmanni  Beissn 

Thiija  occidentalis  frcebeli  Beissn. 

Thuja  occidentalis  parva  Sudw. 


31 

Thuja  occideutalis  albo-variegata  Beissn. 
Thtija  occidentalis  aureo-variegata  Beissn. 
Thuja  occidentalis  argentea  Gord. 
Thuja  occidentalis  alba  Gord. 
Thuja  occidentalis  little-gem  Beissn. 
Thuja  occidentalis  silver-queen  Beissn. 

Thuja  plicata  Don.  Giant  Arborvitae. 

TUUYA   GIGANTEA   Xutt. 

Raxgk. — From  coast  of  soutbern  Alaska  to  northern  California  (Mendocino 
Conuty);  eastward  through  British  Coliuiibia and  nortliern  Washington  to  northern 
Idaho  (Cceur  d'Alene,  Bitter  Koot,  and  Salmon  River  mountains)  and  Montana; 
western  slopes  Kocky  Mountains. 

Names  in  use. — Red  Cedar  (Idaho,  Oreg.,  Wasli.);  Canoe  Cedar 
(Orcg.,  Wash.);  Arborvitai  (Cal.);  iSbinglewood  (Idaho);  Gigantic 
Cedar  (Cal.);  Cedar  (Oreg.);  Gigantic  Red  Cedar  (Cal.  lit.);  Western 
Cedar;  Gigantic  or  Pacific  Eed  Cedar  (Cal.  lit.);  Lobb's  Arborvitae 
(iu  cult.  Eug.);  Pacific  Eed  Cedar  (Cal.  lit.). 

VARIETIES   DISTINGUISHED   IN   CULTIVATION. 

Thuja  plicata  gracillima  (Beissn.)  Sndw. 
Thuja  plicata  atrovirens  (Gord.)  Sndw. 
Thuja  plicata  auresceus  (Beissn.)  Sndw. 
Thuja  plicata  argenteo- versicolor  Sudw. 
Thuja  plicata  flava  Sud^. 
Thuja  plicata  variegata  Carr. 
Thuja  plicata  compacta  (Carr.)  Beissn. 
Thuja  plicata  llaveana  Gord. 
Thuja  plicata  minima  Gord. 
Thuja  plicata  erecta  (Gord.)  Sudw. 
Thuja  plicata  pumila  (Gord.)  Sudw. 
Thuja  plicata  penduliformis  Sndw. 
Thuja  plicata  cristatiformis  Sudw. 

JCUPRESSUS  Linn,     ^j^     -^    -f- 
Cupressus  macrocarpa  Hartw.  Monterey  Cypress. 

Range. — Southern  California  coast  (from  Cypress  Point  to  south  shores  of  Carmel 
Bay  and  on  Point  Lobos). 

Name  in  use. — Monterey  Cypress  (Cal.) 

varieties    DISTINGUISHED   IN   CULTIVATION. 

Cupressus  macrocarpa  angulata  Lemm. 
Cupressus  macrocai-pa  lambertiana  (Carr.)  Mast. 
Cupressus  macrocarpa  crippsii  Mast. 

Cupressus  goveniana  Gord.  Gowen  Cypresa 

Range. — California  coast  region  (Mendocino  County  to  San  Diego  County). 

Name  in  use. — North  Coast  Cypress  (Cal.  lit,). 

\  AIUETIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Cupressus  goveniana  parva  Sudw. 
Cupressus  goveniana  huberiana  Caxr. 
Cupressus  goveniana  glaucifolia  Sudw. 


32 

CupressuB  goveniana  gracilis  (Nels.)  Carr. 
Cupressus  goveniana  cornuta  Carr. 
Cupressus  goveniana  viridis  Carr. 
Cupressus  goveniana  attenuata  (Gonl.)  Carr. 

Cupressus  macnabiana  Murr.  Macnab  Cypress. 

Kancm:.— California  (soiitli  and  west  of  Clear  Lake,  Lake  County;  very  rare;  once 
reported  from  the  southern  base  of  Mount  Shasta,  but  at  present  not  knowu  to  exist 
there). 

Names  in  use.— Cypress;  White  Cedar;  Shasta  Cypress  (Cal.); 
MacNab's  Cypress  (cult.  Eng.,  Eu.);  California  Mountaiu  Cypress 
(Cal.  lit.). 

Cupressus  arizonica  Greene.  Arizona  Cypress. 

Cupressus  guadalupensis  Sarg.,  not  Wats. 

Rangk. — Arizona  (central,  eastern,  and  southern  mountains;  Santa  Kita,  Santa 
Catalina,  and  Chihuahua  mountains);  Mexico  (mountains  of  Souora  and  Chihuahua). 

Names  in  use. — Yew  (Ariz.);  Arizona  Cypress  (Ariz.);  Red  bark 
Cypress  (Ariz.);  Arizona  Ked-bark  Cyj)ress. 

aA     I  Jj^  CHAMiECYPARIS  Spach. 

cfhamsecyparis  thyoides  (L.)  B.  S.  P.  White  Cedar. 

N.  ,t  Cham.ecyparis  sph.eroidea  Spach. 

l^NGE. — Coast  region  from  southern  Maine  to  northern  Florida  and  westward  to 
^J^b2£  W^issippi  (Pearl  Kiver). 

K^^'  NAMES  IN  USE.— White  Cedar  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del., 
WWW  N.  C.  S.  C,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.) ;  Swamp  Cedar  (Del.) ;  Post  Cedar  (Del.) ; 
1^  /  Juidper  (Ala..  N.  C,  Va.). 

VAKIETIE.S   DISTINGUISHED   IN'   CULTIVATION. 

Chamaecyparis  thyoides  glauca  (Eudl.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides  crocea  Sudw. 
Chameecyparis  thyoides  variegata  (Loud.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides  atrovireus  (Knight)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides  pyramidata  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides  fastigiata  cinereo-folia  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides  peuduliformis  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides  hoveyi  (Veitch)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides  nana  (Loud.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides  leptoclada  (Gord.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides  pumila  (Carr.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides  ericoides  (Knight)  Sudw. 


araPBcyparis  nootkatensis  (Lamb.)  Spach.  Yellow  Cedarr 

CUAM.KCYPARIS    NUTKAIONSIS  Spacll. 
Rangk. — Coast  regiou  and  islands  from  Sitka  through  Washington  and  Oregon 
(in  Cascade  Mountains  as  far  as  the  Santiam  River  and  Mount  Jett'erson) ;  east  in 
Washington  to  the  head  waters  of  Yakima  Kiver. 

Names  in  use. — Yellow  Cedar  (Greg.);  Sitka  Cypress  (Oreg.,  Cal.); 
Yellow  Cypress  (Oreg.,  Wash.);  Nootka,  Cypress  (Cal.  lit.);  Nootka 
Sound  Cypress  (cult.  Eng.):  Alaska  Ground  Cypress  (Cal.  lit.);  Alaska 
Cypress  (Cal.  lit.). 


33 


V'AUIKTIKS    IMSTlNliUISUEl)    IX    (   I   I.Tl  \  ATIOX. 

Chameecyparis  nootkatensis  viridifolia  Sudw. 
Chaniaecyparis  nootkatensis  cinerascens  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  nootkatensis  cinerascens  geuuina  Sn<l\v. 
Chamascyparis  nootkatensis  cinerascens  anreo-discolor  Sudw. 
Chama3cyparis  nootkatensis  argenteo-varians  Sudw. 
Chaniaecyparis  nootkatensis  aureo-versicolor  Sudw. 
Cham=ecypaiis  nootkatensis  zanthopliylla  Sudw. 
Chamsecyparis  nootkatensis  pendens  Sudw. 
Cham3scypaiis  nootkatensis  compacta  (Veitcli)  R«is8ii. 
Chaniaecyparis  nootkatensis  comprcssa  Beissu. 
Clianiascyparis  nootkatensis  nidiformis  Eeissu. 
Chamaecyparis  nootkatensis  albo-picta  Sudw. 
Chamsecyparis  nootkatensis  aureo-viridis  (Hoit.  Kew.)  Sudw. 
Chai/I^cyparis  nooJJtatensis  picta  Sudw. 

CSiamaecyparis  l^hvsoniana  (Miirr.)  Pari.  Port  Orford  Cedar. 

Ii.v\(iE. — Coast  regiou  from  southwestern  Oregon  ("Cods  Hay)  tn  (alilbrnia 
(Klamath  IJiver),  extending  inland  alxuit  40  uiiles. 

XA:\rKS  IN  USE. — Port  Orford  Cedar  (Orei;-..  Oal.);  (tregoii  Cedar 
(Greg-.,  Cal.);  White  Cedar  (Greg.,  Cal.):  Ginger  Piue  (Cal.j;^La\j;^son's 
Cypress  (Cal.,  Greg.). 


VARIETIES    DISTIXGUISHEl)    IN    CUI.TI VATIOX. 


Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chameecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 
Chamaecyparis 


laAwsoniana 
lawsoniana 
la'wsoniana 
la-wsoniana 
lawsoniana 
la-vA^soniana 
lawsoniana 
lawsoniana 
lawsoniana 
law^souiana 
law^soniana 
lawsoniana 
lawsoniana 
lawsoniana 
law^soniana 
la'wsoniana 
lawsoniana 
law^soniana 
lawsoniana 
la^wsoniana 
lawsoniana 
la'wsoniana 
la^vsoniana 
law^soniana 
law^soniana 
law^soniaua 
lawsoniana 
lawsoniana 
lawsoniana 
lawsoniana 
la^vsoniana 


erecta  (Gord.)  Sudw. 

erecta  viridis  (Veitch)  Beissn. 

erecta  glaucifolia  .Sudw. 

erecta  elaucescens  Sudw. 

pyramidalis  leucophylla  Sudw. 

pyramidalis  flaveola  Sudw. 

pyramidalis  luteo-teuuis  Sudw. 

roseuthali  Beissn. 

^vorlei  Beissn. 

alumi  Beissn. 

monumentalis  nova  Beissn. 

monumeutalis  albescens  Sudw. 

fraseri  Beissn. 

robusta  Beissn. 

robusta  aurifolia  Sudw. 

robusta  cinerea  Sudw. 

robusta  argentifolia  Sudw. 

atroviridis  Sudw. 

cyanea  Sudw. 

cyanea  pendens  Sudw. 

beissneriana  Smith  and  Cic 

uivea  Beissn. 

lutea  (Gord.)  Beissn. 

lutea  flavesceus  ((Jord.)  Sudw. 

aurea  (Gord.)  Beissn. 

aurea  magn^fici  (Beissn.)  Sudw. 

■westermanni  Beissn. 

versicolor  Bei.ssn. 

argenteo-variegata  (\'eitch)  Beissn. 

argenteo-variegata  novicia  Sudw. 

aureo-variegata  (\'^eitth)  Beissn. 


19193— No.  17 3 


34 


Chamsecyparis  laTWsoniana  aureo-spica  lieissn. 
Chamaecyparis  la^srsoniana  albo-spica  (Gord.)  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  overeynderi  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  law^son^Jina  nutans  Siidw. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniana  nutans  vera  (Beiasn.)  Sudw. 
Chamsecyparis  la-wsDniana  nutans  alba  (Gord.)  Sndw. 
Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  filiformis  (Veitcb.)  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  la-wsouiana  filiformis  globosa  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  intertexta  (^'('itch.)  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  law^.soniana  gracilis  (Gord.)  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniana  gracilis  pusilla  Sndvr. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniana  laxa  Boissn. 
Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  crispa  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  lav^soniana  casuarinifolia  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  lawrsoniana  tortuosa  ]5eissn. 
Chamaecyparis  la^wsoniana  compacta  recens  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniana  fragrans  (Gord.)  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  fragrans  argyropsis  Sudw. 
Chamcecyparis  la-wrsoniana  fragrans  conica  Beissn. 
Chamaecyp^is  lav^soniana  parva  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniaua  parva  Candida  Sndw. 
Chamcecyparis  law^soniana  parva  albo-variegata  yGord.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniana  parva  albo-spiciformis  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniana  parva  densa  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  lavrsoniana  shaw^i  l^>eissu. 
Chamaecyparis  la^vsoniana  minima  (Gord.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  argentea  ((Jord. )  Beissn. 
Chani3ecyparis  laAvsoniana  argentea  depauperata  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  argentea  minuta  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  la^vsoniana  argentea  prostrata  (lieissn.)  Sndw. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniana  forstekiana  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  la'wrsouiana  ■wreisseana  Moell. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniana  silver-queen  Beissn. 
Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  amabilis  (Hort.  Kew.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniana  bow^leri  (Hort.  Kew.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  law^soniana  californica  (Hort.  Kew.)  Sudw. 
Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  darleyensis  (Hort.  Kew.)  Sudw. 

J>  '  JUNIPERUS  Liun, .  _,   ; 

Juniperus  virginiana  Linn.  '  Red  Juniper. 

Ranck. — Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  to  Florida  and  west  in  Ontario  (Geor 
gian  Bay)  to  Dakota,  central  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  and  Indian  Territory.     Actual 
range  imperfectly  known  at  present,  the  supposed  Kooky  Mountain  and  Western 
range  bcinj^  represented  l»y  a  new,  distinct  species  (J.  scopulariim  Sarg.). 

Names  in  use.— Red  Cedar  (N.  U.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Pa.,  Del.,  Ya.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C.  S.  C,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ky.,  Mo., 
IlL,  Ind.,  Wis.,  Iowa,  Mich.,  Minn..  Ohio,  Ont.);  Cedar  (Conn.,  Pa.,  N,  J., 
S.  C,  Ky.,  111.,  Iowa,  Ohio);  Savin  (Mass.,  K.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Minn.); 
Juniper  C^.  Y.,  Pa.);  Juniper  Hush  (Minn.);  Cedre  (La.). 

VAKIKTIKS    niSTINGUISHEU    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Juniperus  virginiana  caroliniana  (Marsh.)  Willd. 
Jvmiperus  virginiana  gracilis  (Endl.)  Sarg. 
Juniperus  virginiana  pyramidiformis  Sudw. 
Juniperus  virginiana  pyramidiformis  glaucifolia  Sudw. 


35 

Juniperus  virginiana  pyramidiformis  viridifolia  Sudw. 

Juniperus  virginiana  cannarti  (Kodi.)  Reissn. 

Junijiferus  virginiana  polyniorpha  Beissii. 

Juniperus  virginiana  pendula  Carr. 

Juniperus  virginiana  smithi  penduliformis  Sudw. 

Juniperus  virginiana  chamberlayni  Carr. 

Juniperus  virginiana  nutans  Beissn. 

Jiiniperus  virginiana  interrupta  (W»!ud.)  Ut-issn, 

Juniperus  virginiana  dumosa  Carr. 

Juniperus  virginiana  pumila  Gord. 

Juniperus  virginiana  pumila  nivea  (Beissn.)  Snd-w. 

Juniperus  virginiana  schotti  Gord. 

Juniperus  virginiana  tripartita  Gord. 

Juniperus  virginiana  tripartita  aureo-versicolor  Sndw. 

Juniperus  virginiana  kosteriana  Beissn. 

Junipenis  virginiana  glaucescens  Sudw. 

Juniperus  virginiana  cinerascens  Carr. 

Juniperus  virginiana  pluniosa  alba  (Carr.)  Beissn. 

Juniperus  virginiana  plumosa  Candida  Sudw. 

Juniperus  virginiana  albo-spica  Beissn. 

Juniperus  virginiana  albo-variegata  Beissn. ' 

Juniperus  virginiana  aureo-spica  Beissn. 

Juniperus  virginiana  aureo-variegata  Veitch. 

Juniperus  virginiana  aurea  superba  Sudw. 

Juuiperiis  virginiana  elegantissixna  Beissu.  . 

Juniperus  virginiana  horizontaliforniis  Sudw. 

Juniperus  virginiana  triomphe  d'angers  Beissn. 

Juniperus  barbadensis  Linn.  Southern  Red  Juniper 

JuiS'iPERUS  VIRGINIANA  authors  ill  part,  not  L. 
Raxge. — South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  (  oast  region  and  southward  through  Florida. 
Range  imperfectly  known  at  present.     Formerly  not  distinguished  from  the  more 
northtru  true  J.  rirginiaua. 

Juniperus  occidentalis  Hook.  Western  Juniper. 

Raxge. — From  western  Idaho,  eastern  Oregon,  ou  Cascade,  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains to  southern  California  (San  B<Tuar(lino  Mountains). 

Xames  in  use. — Juniper  (Oreg.,  Cal.,  Colo.,  Utah,  Nev.,  Mont.,  Idaho. 
N.  Mex.);  Cedar  (Idaho,  Mont.);  Yellow  Cedar  (Colv).,  Mont.);  ^yeste^ll 
Cedar  (Idaho);  Western  Red  Cedar;  Western  Juniper  (Cal.  lit.) 

Juniperus  scopulorum  Sargent.  Rocky  Mountain  Juniper. 

Juniperus  virginiana  authors  in  jiart.  not  L. 

Range. — Nebraska  and  Dakota  (Black  Hills)  to  Montana,  Idaho,  northern  Wash- 
ington and  British  Columbia  to  Vancouver  Island ;  Rocky  Mountains  from  Montana 
to  Arizona  and  Nevada.     Range  imperfectly  known. 

Juniperus monosperma '  (Engelm.)  Sarg.  One-seed  Juniper. 

IiANGK. — Eastern  base  Rocky  Mountains  of  Colorado  (Platte  and  Arkansas  rivers) 
and  southward  into  western  Texas;  southern  Utah  to  central  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona. 

Xames  in  use. — (3ne-seeded  Juniper:  Naked-seeded  Juniper  (Cal. 
lit.) 

^Juniperus  Knighti  Nelson,  in  Hot.  Gaz.,  XXV,  198,  f.  1,  2,  1898.  Prof.  Avea 
Nelson  describes  this  species  as  a  ''scraggy  .shrub  or  small  tree"  common  in  the  Red 
Desert  region  of  Wyoming  from  the  Seminole  Mountains  to  the  Green  River.  I  have 
not  examined  specimens,  but  its  affinities  appear  to  be  with  ./.  mono»perma  audi/. 
scopulorum. 


Juniperus  sabinoides  (H.  B.  K.)  Sargent.  Mountain  Juniper. 

l»AN(iK. — Centiiil  Texas  (('olorado  Kiver),  southward  and  westward. 

Names  in  use. — Juniper  Cedar  (Tex.) :  Mountain  Cedar  (Tex.) ;  Juni- 
per; Mountain  Juniper;  Kock  Cedar  (Tex.). 
Juniperus  californica  Carr.  California  Juniper. 

IiAXCiK. — Central  California  (lovrei-  Sacranicnto  River)  and  southward  through 
California  in  coast  ranges  and  in  Sierra  Nevada  to  Kernville  and  Lower  California. 

II^'AMES  in  use. — White  Cedar;  Juniper  (Cal.);   California  -Mtniper 
(Cal.  lit.);  Sweet-fruited  Juniper  (Cal.);  Sweet-berried  Cedar. 
Juniperus  utahensis  (Engelm.)  Lemm.  Utah  Juniper. 

Rangk. — Desert  region  from  eastern  Utah  ( Wasatch  Mountains)  to  southeastern 
'Calilornia,  northern  Arizona,  and  western  Colorado. 

Names  in  use. — Juniper  (Utah);  Western  Red  Cedar,  Desert  Juni- 
per (Cal.  lit.);   Utah  Junii)er. 
Juniperus  pachyphloea  Torr.  Alligator  Juniper. 

R.\XGK. — Southwestern  Texas  (Eagle  and  Limpia  mountains;,  and  westward  on 
desert  ranges  of  Xew  Mexico  and  Arizona  south  of  Colorado  River  plateau:  moun- 
tains of  northern  Arizona;  ?»Icxico. 

Names  in  use. — Juniper  {Av\7..,  N.  Mex.);  Oak-barked  Cedar  (Ariz.); 
AUioator  Juniper  (Ariz.);  Oakbark  Juniper  (Ariz.);  Mountain  Cedar 
(Tex.):    Thick-barked  Juniper   (Cal.  lit.);  Checkered-barked   Juniper 
(lit.). 
Juniperus  flaccida  Schl.  Drooping  Juniper. 

IvANGK. — Southw<!stern  Texas  (Chisos  Mountains);  northeastern  Mexico. 

Juniperus  communis  Linn.  Dwarf  Juniper. 

Raxgk. — From  (Greenland  to  Alaska  and  in  the  east  southward  to  Pennsylvania 
and  northern  Nebraska  ;  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Texas,  Xew  Mexico,  and  Arizona ; 
in  the  Pacific  region  to  northern  California:  also  in  Old  World. 

VAUIKTIKS    DISTINGUISIIKI)    IN    (TI.TI VATION. 

Juniperus  communis  cracovia  (Koch)  Beissn. 
Juniperus  communis  suecica  (Mill.)  Loud. 
Juniperus  communis  hibernica  (Lodd.)  Gord. 
Juniperus  communis  hibernica  compressa  Carr. 
Juniperus  communis oblonga  (liieb.)  Loud. 
Juniperus  communis  oblongo-pendula  (Loud. )  CaiT, 
Juniperus  communis  pendens  Sudw. 
Juniperus  communis  hemisph^rica  (Presl.  i  Pari. 
Juniperus  communis  echinoformis  (Knight)  Beissn. 
Juniperus  communis  variegata  aurea  Carr. 
Juniperus  communis  sibirica  (Burgad.)  Rydberg. 
Juniperus  communis  argyrophylla  Sudw. 
Juniperus  communis  pygniaea    fKoch)  Sudw. 

TUMION  Raf. 
Tumion  taxifolium  (Arn.)  Greene.  Florida  Torreya. 

TORllEYA   TAXIFOLIA  Am. 
Ra.ngk. — Western  I'lorida  (east  bank  of  Apalachicola  River  from  River  . I  unction 
to  Bristol,  Gadsden  County);  very  looal. 

Names  in  use. — Stinking  Cedar  (Fla.);   Savin  (Fla.);  Torrey-tree 
(Fla.);  Stinking  Savin  (Fla.);  Fetid  Yew  (Eng.  lit.). 


3Y 
Tumion  californicum  (Torr.)  Greene.  California  Torreya. 

TORREYA  CALIFORNICA  ToFF. 

Range. — California  (Mendocino  County  to  .Santa  Cruz  Mountains  in  .^anta  Clara 
Connty). 

IN^AMES  IN  USE. — California  Nutmeg  (Cal. i;  Stinking  Cedar;  Yew" 
(Idaho);  California  False  Nutmeg  (Cal.  lit.):  Coast  Nutmeg  (Cal.  lit.).. 

TAXUS  Linn. 
Taxus  brevifolia  Nutt.  Pacific  Yew. 

ivAXGE. — Pacific  coa.st  region  from  liritish  Columbia  (Queen  Charlotte  Island  and 
Skeena  River),  and  east  to  Selkirk  Mountains:  through  western  Washington  and 
Oregon  to  California  (coast  ranges  t<>  .Monterey  Bay  and  western  slopes  of  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  to  Tiilare  County) ;  mountains  of  eastern  Washington  and  Oregon 
to  Montana  (western  slopes  of  Kocky  .Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Yew  (Cal.,  Idaho,  Oreg.);  Mountain  Mahogany 
(Idaho):  Western  Y^ew  (Cal.):  Pacific  Yew  (Cal.  lit.). 

Taxus  floridana  Nutt.  Florida  Yew. 

Range. — Western  Florida  (east  bank  of  Apalachicola  River,  (Gadsden  County,  from 
Aspalaga  to  the  vicinity  of  Bristol);  very  local. 

Names  in  use. — Yew  (Ha.):  Savin  (Fla.). 

MO:N^OCOTYLEDO]SrES. 

Family  P^^^LM^A^CE^E. 

THRINAX  Liu  11.  f. 

Thrinax  parviflora  Swartz.  Silktop  Palmetto. 

Rangk. — Southern  Florida  keys  i  from  Bahia  Honda  Key  to  Longs  Key) ;  Bahamas. 

Names  in  use — Silktop  Palmetto  (Fla.):  Silver  Thatch  (Fla.). 
Thrinax  microcarpa  Sargent.  Silvertop  Palmetto. 

Range. — Southern  Florida  (No-Xame  Key,  Boca  Cliica  Key,  and  Bahia  Honda  Key) : 
also  on  Sugar  Loaf  Sound. 

Names  IN  USE. — Silvertop  Palmerto  (Fla.);  Prickley  Thatch  (Fla.); 
Brittle  Thatch  (Fla.). 

SABAL  Adans. 

Sabal  palmetto  (Walt.)  Rcem.  »S:  Sch.  Cabbage  Palmetto. 

Range. — Coast  region  trom  North  Carolina  (Smiths  Island,  Ca)>e  Fear  Kiver)  to 
Florida  (Key  Largo),  and  on  the  Gulf  coast  to  the  Apalachicola  River. 

Names  in  use. — Cabbage  Palmetto  (N.  C,  S.  C);  Bank's  Palmetto 
(N.  ('.);  Palmetto  (N.  C,  S.  C);  Cabbage-tree  (Miss.,  Fla.);  Tree  Pal- 
metto (La.). 
Sabal  mexicana  Mart.  Mexican  Palmetto. 

Range. — Southwestern  Texas  (Rit)  Crande  River  from  near  Kdinhurg  nearly  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico)  and  southward  into  Mexico  (in  coast  region  to  southern  jiart). 

PSEUDOPHCENIX  Weiidl. 
Pseudophcenix  Sargentii  Wend.  Sargent  Palm. 

Range.— Southern  Florichi  keys  (Elliotts  Key  and  Key  Largoj;  Bahamas. 

Names  in  use. — Florida  Palm  (Fla.);  Sargent's  Palm. 


3H 

OREODOXA  Willd. 

Oreodoxa  regia  H.  B.  K.  Royal  Palm. 

Kangk.  — lloiiiUi  (oil  Kogues  Kivev,  I'O  miles  east  of  Caximba.s  li;iy,  Loii^s  Key, 
jliiscayne  Bay,  near  mouth  of  Little  IJiver);  West  Indies,  ami  Central  America. 

Name  in  use. — Royal  Palm  fFla.). 

NEOWASHING-TONIA'  Sudwoitb. 
Neowashingtonia  filamentosa  ( Weiul.)  Sudw.  Tanleaf  Palm. 

W'ASHINGTONIA    FILIFERA  Weiull. 
Range. — Sonthein  Calitornia  fSau  Bernardino  Mountain.s  to  Colorado  River). 

Names  in  use. — Washington  Palm  (Cal.);  California  Fan  Palm 
(Cal.);  Arizona  Palm  (Oal.):  Wild  Date  (Cal.);  Fanleaf  Palm  (Cal.). 

Family  LILI^CE^^. 

YUCCA  Linn. 

Yucca  treculeana  Cair.  Spanish  Bayonet 

Raxck. — Texas  (Matagorda  Bay)  and  southward  into  Mexico  (Sierra  Madre  Moun- 
tains, Nuevo  Leon),  and  along  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  eastern  base  of  monntaius  of 
■vvt'stern  Texas. 

Name  in  use. — Spanisli  Bayonet  (Tex.). 

Yucca  arborescens  (Torr.)  Trelease.  Joshua-tree. 

Yucca  brevifolia  Engelm.  * 

Raxgk. — Southwestern  Utah  to  California  (to  the  western  and  northern  borders  of 
the  Mohavo  Desert). 

Names  in  use. — Tree  Ym^ca  (Cal.);  Yucca  Cactus  (Cal. ) ;  The  Joshua 
{(Jtah):  Josima  tree  (CTtah,  Ariz.,  N.  Mex.). 
Yucca  brevifolia  Torr.  Schott  Yucca. 

Range. — Southern  boundary  of  Arizona;   .Mexico. 

Yucca  constricta  Buckl. 

IvANtiK. — Southwestern  Texas  to  southern  Arizona;  northern  Mexico. 

Yucca  macrocarpa  (Torr.)  Coville.  Breadfruit  Yucca. 

IvANCiE. — Soutli\ve>tern  Texiis  ( desert  plateau). 

Yucca  mohavensis  Sargent.  Mohave  Yucca. 

Range. — From  northeastern  Arizona  and  southern  Nevada  into  California  (across 
the  Mohave  Desert; ;  and  from  southern  base  of  San  Bernardino  Mountains  to  the 
coast  and  northward  to  Monterey  Bay. 

Yucca  aloifolia  Linn.  Aloe-leaf  Yucca. 

RaN(;i;. — Coast  of  North  Carolina  to  I'lorida  and  <iulf  coast  to  Louisiana. 

Name  in  use. — Spanish  Bayonet. 
Yucca  gloriosa  Linn.  Spanish  Dagger. 

Ran(;i:. — (oast  of  South  Carolina  and  islands. 

varieties    DISTINGIISHKD    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Yucca  gloriosa  plicata  Carr. 
Yucca  gloriosa  recurrifolia  Kngelin. 

Washingtonia  VVendL  (1879),  not  of  Winslow  (1854)  nor  of  Carr.  (1867). 


39 

DICOTYLEDO]Srii:S. 

Family    JXJOL^jST  D^CE^El. 

JXTGLANS  Linn. 
Juglans  cinerea  Linn.  Butternut. 

Raxge. — Southern  New  Hriinswick  to  Delaware  and  on  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
to  Georgia  and  Alabama  (head  waters  of  Black  Warrior  River,  Winston  County) ; 
westward  through  Ontario  to  Dakota,  southeastern  Nebraska,  southern  Missouri, 
and  northeastern  Arkansas. 

Names  in  use.— Butternut  (Me.,  K  H..  Vt.,  Mass.,  K.  I.,  Conn.,  K  Y., 
N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  X.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Iowa, 
Ind.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  Wis.,  Kans.,  Xebr.,  Ohio,  Ont.) ;  White  Walnut  (Del., 
Pa.,  Va.,W.Va.,  N.C.,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Wis.,  Iowa,  Nebr., 
Minn.,  S.  Dak.);  Walnut  (Minn.);  Oil  Nut  (Me.,  N.  H.,  S.  C);  Buttnut 
(N.  J.). 

Juglans  nigra  Linn.  Black  "Walnut. 

Range. — Southern  <  )iitario  to  Florida,  central  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  and  west- 
ward through  southern  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota  to  Nebraska,  Kansas, 
and  Texas  (San  Antonio  River). 

Names  in  use. — Black  Walnut  (N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  E.  L,  Conn.,  N.  Y., 
K.  J.,  DeL,  Pa.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  La.,  Ark., 
Ky.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  111.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Mich.,  Oliio,  Ont.,  S.  Dak., 
Minn.);  Walnut  (N.  Y.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  Fla.,  Ky..  Mo.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  Iowa); 
Walnut-tree  (Pa.,  S.  C);  Deut-soo-kwa-no-ne  (=Ilound  Nut,  N.  Y. 
Indians). 

Juglans  rupestris  Engelm.  Mexican  Walnut. 

Ranue. — Central  Texas  (Colorado,  Idano,  and  Guadaloiipe  rivers)  westward 
tlirough  southern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  and  southwiird  into  Me.vico. 

Names  in  use. — Western  Walnut  (Tex.);  Dwarf  Walnut  (Tex.); 
LittleWalnut(Tex.);Galitoruia  Walnut(Ariz.);  Waluut(N.  Mex.,  Ariz,). 

Juglans  californica  Wats.  California  Walnut. 

Raxge. — Calif  rnia  coast  region  (from  the  Sacramento  River  to  the-  San  Harnardino 
Mountains). 
Names  in  use. — Walnut  (Cal.):  California  Walnut  (Cal.). 

HICORIAKaf.^ti^^'VV^lX*^  j 

Hicoria  pecan  (Marsh.)  Britton.         .      fl  Pecan  (Hickory),   c  <. 

Carya  oLiv^EFORMis  Nutt.       ^^^^^f^XiA^  0^  l/€A-^^^Jt©L  -^^  ' 

Range. — Iowa  (vicinity  of  Sabula)  througli  southern  Illinois  and  Indiana,  western 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee  to  central  Alaliania  and  Mis8issi]ipi,  througli  Missouri  and 
Arkansas  to  southeastern  Arkansas,  Indian  Territory,  western  Louisiana  and  central 
Texas  (Concho  River);  Mexico.     Considerably  extended  l>y  cultivation. 

Names  in  use.— Pecau  (Va..  N.  C,  S.  C.,  (Ja.(cult.),  Ala.,  Miss.,  Tex., 
La.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111..  Ind.,  Iowa,  Kalis.);  Pecau  Nut(La.);  Pecaiiier  (La.); 
Pecan-tree  (La.). 


40 

Hicoria  pecan  x  minima  Trelease. 

Hicoria  pecan  x  alba  Trcleiise. 

Hicoria  pecan  x  laciniosa  Trelease.  Nussbaum  Hybrid  (Hickory), 

Hicoria  minima  (Marsh.)  Brittou.  Bitternut  (Hickory). 

Carva  amara  Nutt. 

K'axce. — Southern  Maine  anil  Ontario  to  Horirla  (Apalachitola  River);  west 
tbrongb  central  Michigan  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Indian  Territory,  and 
Texas  (Trinity  River). 

Names  in  use. — Bitternut  (X.  H..  Mass.,  K.  I.,  N.  Y.,  X.  J.,  Pa., 
Del.,  Ya.,  W.  Ya.,  K  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo.. 
111.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Mich.,  Minn..  Ohio,  Out.);  Swamp  Hickory  (Del.,  Pa.. 
X.  C,  S.  C,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Iowa,  Minn.);  Pig  Hickory  (111.);  Pi<i 
Nut  (N.  Y.,  W.  Ya.,  Mo.,  111.,  Iowa,  Ivans.) ;  Bitter  Pecau  Tree,  Pecanier 
Amer,  Pecanier  Sauvage  (La.);  Bitter  Pig  Nut(N.  Y.,  N.  J.);  Hickory 
(Nebr.);  Bitter  Hickory  (N.  H.);  Pig  Walnut  (N.  H.);  Bitter  Walnut 
(Yt.);  Xoyer  Dur  (Quebec);  White  Hickory  (Tex.) 

Hicoria  myristiceeformis  (Michx.  f.  ) Brittou.         Nutmeg  Hickory. 
Oarya  myristic.kformis  Nutt. 

Range. — Coast  region  of  South  Carolina  (Goose  Creek,  Cooper  River) ;  central 
Alabama  (between  Tombigbee  and  Alabama  rivers,  from  Deuiopolis  to  Gallioni; 
central  Mi.ssissippi  (Mboons  Valley);  southern  Arkansas  (Pine  Blutf  to  Arkansas 
City,  and  in  K'ed  River  bottoms  above  Fulton).  Often  cultivated  in  the  middW' 
Atlantic  region. 

Names  in  use. — Nutmeg  Hickory  (S.  0.,  Ala.);    Bitter  Waternur 

(La.). 

Hicoria  aquatica  (Michx.  f.)  Britten.  Water  Hickory. 

Oarya  a^)UATica  Nutt. 

Range. — Coast  region  \'irginia  (Mobjack  Bay)  to  Florida  (Cape  Malabar  and 
Coosa),  and  in  the  Gulf  i*egion  to  Texas  (Brazos  River)  extending  northward  in 
west(;rn  Louisiana  to  northeastern  Arkansas,  eastern  Mississippi  .ind  southim 
Illinois  (Gallatin  County,  near  Equality). 

Names  in  use. — Water  Hickory  (N.  C,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Te\., 
Mo.);  Swamp  Hickory  (S.  O.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.);  Bitter  Pecau  (.Miss., 
La.,  Tex.);  Water  Bitternut  (S.  O.,  Tenn.). 

Hicoria  ovata  (Mill.)  Brittou.  Shagbark  (Hickory). 

Oar'^a  alba  Nutt. 

Range. — Southern  Maine  and  Quebec  (near  Montreal)  to  Delaware  and  along  ihe 
Appalachian  Mountains  to  Florida,  northern  .\labam:i  aiul  Mississipjii;  west  through 
southern  .Michigan  to  central  Minnesota,  and  northeastern  Nebraska,  central  Kansas, 
Indian  Territory,  and  eastern  Texas. 

Names  in  use.— Shellbark  Hickory  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y., 
Pa..  Del.,  Ya.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  (J.,  Ga.,  Ma.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Ky., 
Mo.,  Ind.,  III.,  Wis.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Neb.,  Ohio,  Ont.,  Mich.);  Shagbark 
Hickory  (Yt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  K.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  S.  C, 
Ala.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Minn..  Kans.,  Neb.,  Iowa); 
Shellbark(R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  N  C);  Upland  Hickory  (111.);  Hickory(Yt., 
Ohio);  Scalybark  Hickory  (W.  Ya.,  S.O.,  Aia.);  Shagbark  (K.  L,  Ohio); 


41 

Shellbark-tree  (Del.) ;  White  Walnut  (l!5".  J.);  Walnut  fVt.,  N.  Y.) ;  White 
Hickory  (Iowa,  Ark.);  Sbagbark  Walnut  (Vt.);  Sweet  Walnut  (Vt.); 
Eedheart  Hickorj'  (-Miss.), 

Hicoria  laciniosa  (Miclix.  f.)  Sargent.  Shellbark  (Hickory). 

Carya  sulcata  Nutt. 

KaJs'GE. — Iowa  (vicinity  of  Muscatine)  through  Missouri,  Arkansas,  eastern  Kan- 
sas, and  Indian  Territory  (near  Ouachita),  southern  Illinois  and  Indiana  to  ini<ldle 
Tennessee,  western  and  tentral  New  York  and  eastern  Pennsylvania. 

Names  in  use.— Big  Shellbark  (R.  I.,  Pa.,  W.  Va.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111., 
Kans.);  Bottom  Shellbark  (111.);  Western  Shellbark,  Shellbark  (II.  I., 
Ky.,)  Thick  Shellbark  (S.  C,  Tenn.,  Ind.);  Thick  Shellbark  Hickory 
(K  C,  Ark.);  King  Nut  (Tenn.). 

Hicoria  alba  (Linn.)  Britton.  l^ocker  Nut  (Hickory).      ^^ 

Carta  TOMENTOsAXutt.i^>^    "    '"    ,.     *-^      .  ,-    .4      ^^^^^ 

Range. — Ontario  to   Florida  (Cape   Canaveral    and   Tam]{i   Bay)   and   west  toA  / 

Missouri,  eastern  Kansas,  Indian  Territory  and  Texas  (Brazos  River).  "i^^^^^L 

Names  in  use. — Mocker  Nut  (Mass.,  E.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Del.,  Ala., 
Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  111.,  Iowa,  Kans.);  Whiteheart  Hickory  (R.  L, 
N.  Y., Pa.,  Del., N.C.,  Tex.,  111.,  Ont.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Minn.,  Nebr.)  ;Bulluut 
(N.  Y.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  Ohio,  111.,  Minn.);  Black  Hickory  (Tex., 
Miss.,  La.,  Mo.);  Big-bud,  Red  Hickory  (Fla.);  Hickory  (Ala.,  Tex.); 
Hardbark  Hickory  (III.) ;  Hickory  (Pa.,  S.  0.,  Nebr.);  Common  Hickory 
(N.  C);  White  Hickory  (Pa.,  S.  C);  Hickory  Nut  (Ky.);  Big  Hickory 
Nut  (W.  Ya.);  Hog  Nut  (Del.). 

Hicoria  glabra  (Mill.)  Britton.  Pignut  (Hickory). 

Cary^a  porcina  Nutt. 

Range. — Southern  Maine  and  southern  Ontario  to  Florida  ( Indian  River  and  Peace 
Creek) ;  west  through  southern  Michigan  to  southeastern  Nebraska,  eastern  Kansas, 
Indian  Territory  and  eastern  Texas  (Nueces  River). 

Naivtes  in  use. — Pignut  (N.  H.,  Vt,  Mass.,  Conn.,  R.  L,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Pa.,  Del.,  W.  Ya.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Ky., 
Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Wis.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Minn.,  Ohio,  Out.);  Bitteruut 
(Ark.,  111.,  Iowa,  Wis.");  Black  Hickory  (Miss.,  La.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  Ind., 
Iowa);  Broom  Hickory  (Mo.);  Brown  Hickory  (Del.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Tenn., 
Minn.);  Hard-shell  (W.  Y.);  Red  Hickory  ( DeL ) ;  Switch-bud  Hickory 
(Ala.);  White  Hickory  (N.  H.,  Iowa). 

Hicoria  odorata  (Marsh.)  Sargent.  Small  Pignut  (Hickory). 

Cary'A  microcarpa  Nutt. 

Range. — Eastern  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  eastern  and  central  New  York,  east- 
ern Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  District  of  Columbia,  Maryland  (Montgomery  i^ounty), 
central  Michigan,  southern  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Missouri. 

Names  in  use. — Small  Pignut  (Md.);  Little  Pignut  (Md.);  Little 
Shagbark  (Md.). 
Hicoria  villosa  (Sarg.)  Ashe.  Pale-leaf  Hickory. 

Hicoria  glabra  yillosa  Sarg. 

Hicoria  pallida  Ashe 

Rangk. — Missouri  (Allentown);  middle  Tennessee  and  northern  Alabama  to 
Georgia  and  southern  Virginia.     Distribution  insufficiently  known. 


42 

Family  jMYKIC^CE^E. 

MYRICA  Liim. 

Myrica  cerifera  Linn.  Wax  Myrtle. 

Eaxge. — Southern  Maryland  to  sontliern  Florida  and  west  in  the  (Julf  States  to 
Texas  (Rockport,  Arkansiis  Bay);  northward  west  of  Mississippi  River  to  Arkansas 
(Washita  River).    In  the  Bahamas,  Bermuda,  West  Indies. 

Names  ix  use.— Wax  Myrtle  (R.  I.,  N.  J.,  Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala., 
Fla.);  Bayberry  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  J.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Del.,  :N^.  C,  S.  C,  xVIa., 
Fla.);  Waxberry  (K.  I.,  Pa.,  S.  C);  (Jirier  (La.);  Caudleberry  (Fla.); 
Myrtle  (Fla.);  Myrtletree  (Fla.);  Puckerbush  (Fla.). 
Myrica  inodora  Bartr.  Odorless  Myrtle. 

Raxgk. — Near  Apalachicolu,  Fla.;  Mobile  and  Stockton,  Ala.,  and  ro])larvillt>, 
Miss.     Rare. 

Myrica  californica  Cham.  California  Wax  Myrtle. 

Kaxge. — I'acitic  coast  region  from  Paget  Sound  to  California  (Santa  Monica). 
Xames   in   USB. — California    Bayberry;    Myrtle;   Bayberry  (Cal.): 
Oalilornia  Myrtle  (Cal.);  AVax  Myrtle  (Cal.). 


Family  LEITNERI_ACE^E. 

LEITNERIA  Chapm. 

Leitneria  floridana  Chapm.  Corkwood. 

Raxge. — Western  Florida  (swamp  near  Apalachicola) ;  Missouri  (Butler  and 
Duncan  counties);  Arkansas  (near  Vamer).  Very  local,  and  range  imperfectly 
understood.  ,  __,      .  A  I  i 


Salix  nigra  Marsh.  ,  .f^Jcoll^^  «^^J/mJt^nBlack  Willo'^ 

Rangi:.— New   Brunswick  fo   southern   Florida    and  •  w^t    to    eastern    Dakota, 


Nebraska,  Kansas,  Indian  Territory,  southern  Arizona,  and  south  into  Mexico.  In 
California  (from  the  Sierra  Nevadas  to  Colusa  County,  and  from  Sacramento  River 
to  Arizona). 

Names  in  use.— Black  Willow  (N.  H.,  Vt..  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Del., 
S.  C,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss,,  La.,  Tex.,  Ariz.,  Cal.,  N.  Mex.,  Utah,  111.,  Wis., 
Mich.,  Minn.,  Nebr.,  Kan.,  Ohio,  Ont.,  N.  Dak.);  Swamp  Willow  (N.  C, 
S.  C.) :  Willow  (N.  Y.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  S.  C.  Miss.,  Tex..  Cal.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Nebr.). 
Salix  nigra  falcata  (Pursh)  Torr.  Crescentleaf  Willow 

Salix  nigra  x  amygdaloides  Glatf. 
Salix  nigra  x  alba  Bebb. 

Salix  wardi  Bebb.  Ward  Willow. 

Raxge. — Virginia  (Potomac  River  near  Washington,  D  C),  Kentucky  (Ohio 
River),  central  Tennessee,  Illinois  (Horse  Shoe  Lake,  near  Venice),  southern  Missouri, 
Indian  Territory.     Distribution  insufficiently  known. 


43 

Salix  occidentalis  longipes  (Aiiderss.)  Bebb.      Longstalk  WilloTV. 

Range. — Florida  (Jacksonville)  and  westward  tbronfjh  Texas  to  New  Mexico,  Ari- 
zona, and  the  sonthern  Sierra  Nevadas,  California.     Also  in  northern  Jlexico. 

Salix  amygdaloides  Anderss.  Almondleaf  Willo-w. 

IvAXGE. — Quebec  (near  ^lontreal)  and  New  York  (Cayuga  County)  to  the  upper 
Saskatchewan;  southward  to  (^hio  and  Missouri,  and  westward  in  the  Plains  region 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  it  ranges  from  southwestern  Texas  to  Oregon,  Wash- 
ington, British  Columbia. 

NA:\rt:s  in  use.— Willow  (Xev.,  Oreg.,  Colo., Utah, Mont);  Black  Wil- 
low (Mo.,  Idaho);  Common  Willow  (Mont.). 

Salix  laevigata  Bebb.  Smoothleaf  Willow. 

Range. — California  (Siskiyou  County  to  the  southern  boundary  of  the  State), 
if  AMES  IN  USE.— Wiliow  (Cal.) ;  Black  Willow, 

Salix  laevigata  angustifolia  Bebb.  Narrowleaf  WilloTV. 

Salix  laevigata  congesta  Bebb. 

Salix  lasiandra  Beutli.  "Western  Black  Willow. 

Raxge. — Calilornia  (west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada) :  western  Oregon,  Washington,  and 
southern  British  Columbia  (Selkirk  Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Willow  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  Black  Willow. 

Salix  lasiandra  lyalli  Sargent.  Lyall  Willow. 

Range. — Western  Oregon,  Washington,  and  southern  British  Columbia. 

Salix  lasiandra  caudata  (Nutt.)  Sud worth. 

Range. — Northern  Calilornia  (Sierra  Nevada)  to  northern  Montana,  Colorado,  and 
iiKitliem  New  Mexico. 

Salix  bonplandiana  B.  B.  K.  Bonpland  Willo-w. 

Range. — Arizona  (Sabino  Canyon  and  Santa  Catalin.i  mountains) ;  central  and 
southern  Mexico. 

Salix  lucida  Muehl.  GS-lossyleaf  Willow^. 

Range. — Newfoundland  (Exploits  River)  to  Hudson  Bay  and  northwestward  to 
Great  Bear  Lake,  Mackenzie  River,  and  to  the  Rocky  Mountains;  southward  to 
Pennsylvania  and  west  to  eastern  Nebraska. 

Salix  fluviatilis  Nutt.  Longleaf  Willow. 

Salix  longifolia  Muehl. 

RaXge. — Quebec  (Lake  St.  John  and  Island  of  Orleans)  and  southward  through 
western  New  England  to  the  Potomac  River;  northwestward  to  the  Arctic  Circle 
(valley  of  Mackenzie  River)  and  British  Columbia  and  Californi:i ;  soutliward  in  the 
Mississippi  River  basin  to  northern  Mexico  and  Lower  California. 

Names  in  use. — Sandbar  Willow  (E.  I..  Miss.,  Cal.,  Kans.,  Nebr., 
Minn.,  S.  Dak.,  Wis.,  Ont.);  Longleaf  Willow  (Ala.,  Kans.,  Mich.); 
Loiig-leaved  Willow  (Tenn.,  Minn.,  Nebr.,  Colo.,  Cal.,  Idaho,  Wash.); 
Narrow-leaved  Willow  (Nebr.);  Shrub  Willow  (Nebr.);  Wbite  Willow 
(Mo.);  Ked  Willow  (Mont.);  Osier  Willow  (Mont.);  Willow  ("^'^,  N.  Y., 
Ky.,  Ind.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Cal..  Nev.,  Utah,  Mont.). 

Salix  fluviatilis  exigua  (Nutt.)  Sargent. 
Range. — Western  Texas  to  northern  California. 

Salix  fluviatilis  argyrophylla  (Nutt.)  Sargent. 

Range. — Western  Texas  to  northern  California 


44 
Salix  sessilifolia  Nutt.  Silverleaf  Willo-w. 

IjAXcii:.  —  From  I'ligftt  Sonnil  to  southwestern  California,  ranging  through  western 
Washington  and  Oregon,  western  slopes  of  California,  Sierra  and  coast  ranges. 

Xames  i\  rsE.— Willow  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  Silver  Willow  (Cal.)- 
Salix  taxifolia  H.  B.  K.  Yewleaf  Willow. 

Kanc.e. — Texas  (near  El  Paso),  southern  Arizona  (near  Tucson  and  on  mountain 
streams);  Mexico  to  Guatemala  and  Lower  California. 

Salix  bebbiana  Sargent.  Bebb  Willow. 

Salix  rostrata  Kich. 

Range. — St.  Lawrence  Kiver  /'c'vor  valley)  to  Hudson  Bay  and  northwestward 
to  the  Arctic  Circle  (Mackenzie  River)  and  British  C<dnmhia  (coast  ranges) ;  south 
to  Pennsylvania  and  west  to  Minnesota;  western  Idaho  and  norlhern  Montana  to 
Dakota  (Black  Hills);  western  Xebraska,  through  Colorado  to  norlhern  Arizona. 

Salix  discolor  Muelil.  V  Glaucous  Willow. 

Range. — Xova  Scotia  to  Manitoba  ami  south  to  Delaware;  southern  Indiana  and 
Illinois  and  northeastern  Missouri. 

i!^AMES  IN  USE. — Glaucous  Willow  (E.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Miss.,  Midi., 
Miun.,  Out);    Pussy  Willow   (X.  J.,  Miuu.);    Silver  Willow;  Swamp 
Willow  (X.  J.);  WiHow  (Vt.,  N.  Y.,  Mo.). 
Salix  discolor  eriocephala  (Michx.)  Anderss.' 
Salix  discolor  prinoides  (Pursh)  Anderss. 
Salix  cordata  mackenzieana  Hook.  Mackenzie  Willow^. 

Range. — Great  Slave  Lake  and  southward  (through  region  along  eastern  base  of 
Rocky  Mountains)  to  northern  Idaho  and  California  (Lake  County). 

Salix  cordata  lutea  (Xutt.)  Bebb.  Yellow  Willow. 

Rance. — South'-rn  Assiniboia  and  northern  Montana. 

Salix  niissouriensis  Bebb.  Missouri  Willo^v. 

Salix  coruata  var.  yestita  Sargent,  not  Pursli. 

Range. — Western  Missouri  (Courtney,  Jackson  County,  Fort  Osage,  and  near 
Watson,  Atchison  County). 

Salix  lasiolepis  Bentli.  Bigelow^  Willow^. 

Range. — Northern  California  (Klamath  Kiver)  and  southward  through  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  State  to  Lower  C'alifornia  and  southern  Arizona  (Tanners  Canyon  on 
Huachuca  Mountains,  and  White  River  Canyon  on  Chericahua  Mountains). 

Name  in  i^se. — Willow  (Cal.,  Xev.). 
Salix  nuttallii  Sargent.  Nuttall  Willow^. 

Salix  flavescens  Nutt. 

Range. — From  southern  Assiniboia  and  British  Columbia  (Columbia  River  near 
Donald)  southward  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  to  northern  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  (San  Francisco  Mountain):  California  (Sierra  Nevada  to  the  San  Bernardino 
Mountains). 

Xames  IN  USE. — Mountain  Willow  (Mont.);  Willow  (Oreg.,  Ttab); 
Black  Willow. 

Salix  nuttallii  brachystachys  (Benth.)  Sargent. 

Ran(;e  — Western  Washington  and  Oregon,  and  California  coast  region. 

Salix  piperi  Bebb.  Piper  Willovr. 

Range. — Western  Washington. 

Salix  hookeriana  Barratt.  Hooker  Willow^ 

Range. — Vancouver  Island  to  southern  Oregon — coast  region. 


45 
Salix  alba  Linn.  White  Willow. 

RaX(;k. — Europe.     Widely  u.atuialized  in  the  I'lii ted  States. 

Salix  alba  x  lucida  Bebb. 

Salix  fragilis  Limi.  Crack  Willow. 

Kancje. — Enioi)e.     Naturalized  in  eastern  North  Anierii-a. 

Salix  babylonica  Linu.  Weeping  Willow. 

RaX(;e. — Europe.     Naturalized  in  f<!w  localitif«  in  Atlantic  region. 

Salix  sitchensis  Sans.  Silky  Willow. 

Kangk. — Alaska  to  southern  California  (Santa  Barbara) — coast  region. 

Names  in  use. — Silky  Willow  (Oreg.):  Sitka  Willow  (derm.  lit.). 

y  POPULUS  Lnin.  «^^Ax^  ^  (^AM^^oji^ 

Populus  tremuloides  Miclix.  -ui^J^o<^Ai'j^/-<ft/7^  ^Amm^**^       Aspen. 

Range. — Southeru  Labrador  to  Hudson  Bay  (southern  shores)  and  northwestward^ 
to  the  Mackenzie  River  (near  mouth)   and  Alaska  (Yukon  River);  southward  to"tC^-)^ 
Pennsylvania  (mountains),  northeastern  Missouri,  southern  Nebraska,  and  through- 
out the  western  mountains  to  northern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  and  central  Cali- 
fornia; Lower  California   (San   Pedro   Matir   Mountains)   and  Mexico   (mountains 
of  Chihuahua).  y^^C-^/^^^-^^^n^,  - 

Names  in  use. — Aspen  (X.  H,,  Mass.,  E.  I..  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N  J.,  Pa., 
Del.,  111.,  lud.,  was.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  N.  Dak.,  Nebr.,  Obio,  Ont.,  Oreg., 
Utah,  Idaho,  Nev.,  Mont,  Colo.,  Cal.);  Quaking  Asp  (N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Del., 
Cal.,  N.  Mex.,  Idaho,  Colo.,  Ariz.,  111.,  Iowa,  Minn.,  Mont.,  Nebr.,  Utah, 
Oreg.,  Nev.)5  Mountain  Asp  (Mont.);  American  Aspen  (Vt.);  Aspen  luTil^ 
Leaf  (Pa.);  White  Poplar  (Mass.);    Trembling  Poplar  (Minn.,  ColoO;  K 
American  Poplar  (Minn.,  Colo.);    Poplar  (Vt.,  N.  Y.,  111.,  Ind.,  Minn.,  Wj 
Mont.);   Popple  (Wis.,  Iowa,  Mont.);   Tremble  (Quebec);  Trembling    >»^, 
Asnen  (^towa) :  Aspen  Poj^lar  (Cal.,  ^Mont.).  /  ^ 

Hi        VARIETY   DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Populus  tremuloides  pendens  Sudw.      .  • 

\ 

Populus  grandidentata  Michx.  Largetooth  Aspen. 

Range. — Nova  Scotia  through  New  Brunswick,  southern  Quebec,  and  Ontario  to 
northern  Minnesota ;  southward  to  Delaware  (and  along  the  Allegheny  Mountains  to 
North  Carolina,  central  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee;,  southern  Indiana,  and  Illinois. 

Names  in  use. — Large-toothed  Aspen  (N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  S.  C,  Mich., 
Minn.);  Poplar  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  E.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa., 
W.  Va.,  K  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  111.,  Ohio);  Large  toothed  Poplar  (N.  C); 
Large  Pojilar  (Tenn.);  White  Poplar  (Mass.);  Popple  (Me.);  Large 
American  Aspen  (Ala.). 

VARIETY   DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Populus  grandidentata  penduliformis  Sudw.     "Weeping  Largetooth  Aspen. 

Populus  heterophylla  Linn.  S^vanip  Cotton^vood. 

Range. — From  Connecticut  (North  Gilford)  and  Long  Island  (Northport)  south- 
ward near  the  coast  to  southern  Georgia;  westward  in  the  Gulf  region  to  western 
Louisiana  and  through  Arkansas  to  southeastern  Missouri,  western  Kentucky,  and 
Tennessee,  and  southern  Illinois  and  Indiana. 


l^huu 


46 

Xames  in  use. — Eiver  Cottonwood  (R.  I.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ohio);  Swamp 
Cottoiiwoml  (S.  C, Miss.,  Del.);  Black  Cottonwood  (Ala.);  Cottonwood 
(X.  Y,  Ya.,  X.  C,  S.  C,  Miss.);  Downy  Poplar  (Tenn.,  Ala.,  Ark.); 
Swamp  Poplar  (N.  J.);  Cotton-tree  (N.  C);  Liar  (La.);  Langues  de 
femmes  (La.). 
Populus  balsamifera  Linn.     KA^,3.<rvL-  <■  Balm  of  G-ilead. 

Range. — Coast  of  Alaska  ami  valley  of  Mackenzie  River  (latitude  OD")  to  Hudson 
Bay  and  Xcwfouudland;  southward  to  northern  New  England  and  New  York 
(Taughannock  Falls,  Cayuga  Lake),  central  Michigan  and  Minnesota.  Dakota  (Black 
Hills),  northwestern  Nebraska,  northern  Montana,  Idaho,  Oregou,  and  Nevada. 

ISTames  in  use. — Balsam  (N.  H.,  N.  Y.,  AVis.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  Nebr., 
Mont.,  Ohio,  Ont.);  Balm  of  Gilead  (Me.,  X.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  It.  L,  Conn., 
N.  Y.,  Mich.,  Xebr.,  Minn.,  ]Sr.  Dak.,  Out.) ;  ('ottonwood  (Idaho i ;  Poplar 
(Wis.,  Minn.);  Balsam  Poplar  (X.  H.,  Yt.,  Nebr.,  Minn.);  Tacamahac 
(Minn.) ;  Baumier  (Quebec) ;  Kough-barked  Poplar  (Hudson  Bay  region). 
Populus  balsamifera  candicans  (Ait.)  Gray. 

Hairy  Balm  of  Gilead. 

Names  in  use. — Balm  of  Gilead  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  N.  Dak., 
Minn.,  Ont.);  Balsam  (Mich.,  Md.,  and  Ya.     Cult.). 

VARIETIES   DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTINATION. 

Populus  balsamifera  intermedia  l^ond.  * 

Populus  balsamifera  vimiualis  Loud. 
Populus  balsamifera  latifolia  (Mcench.)  Lotid. 

Populus  acuminata  Kydberg.  Lanceleaf  Cotton^rood. 

KAN(iE. — Soutli  Dakota  i,  IJlack  Hills)  and  western  Nebraska  to  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Kocky  Mountains  of  Colorado.     Range  insufficienilv  understood. 

Populus  angustifolia  James,    t  Narro-wleaf  Cotton^vood. 

Ranch. — From  southwestern  Assiniboia  (Milk  and  lielly  rivers)  to  Dakota  (Black 
Hills)  and  northwestern  Nebraska;  southward  in  the  mountain  regions  to  central 
Nevada,  New  Mexico  (Mojj^oUon  Mountains),  central  Arizona. 

.  Names  in  use. — Black  Cottonwood  (N.  Mex.,  Utah,  Colo.);  Narrow- 
leaved  Cottonwood  (Colo.,  Utah) ;  Narrow-leaved  Poplar  (Mont.,  Utah); 
Balsam  (Mont.);  Cottonwood  (Idaho,  Colo.);  Willow  Cottonwood 
(Idaho);  Bitter  Cottonwood  (Idaho);  Willow-leaved  Cottonwood 
(Mont.). 

Populus  trichocarpa  Torr.  &  Gr.  Black  Cottonwood. 

Ranue. — From  southern  Alaska  through  western  British  Columbia  (east  to  Colum- 
bia River),  Avestern  Washington,  Oregon,  California  (and  islands)  to  the  southern 
8lo])e  of  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains.     Northern  range  insuHiciently  understood. 

Names  in  use. — Black  (Jottonwood;  Cottonwood  (Oreg.,  Cal.);  Bal 
sam  Cottonwood;  Balm  (Oreg.);  Balm  Cottonwood  (Cal.). 

j^jjPopulus  deltoides  Marsh.  a   (jCommon)  Cottonwood. 

Populus  monilifera  Ait.    'O-'^^^^x-Jca^'l^  "^  Cl«uvx,!>li>vvU4  ^ 

Rance.— From  Quebec  (Lower  Maurice  River)  and  "Vermont  (Lake  Champlaiu) 
through  Avestern  New  England  and  New  York,  Pennsylvania  (west  of  Alleghenies), 
Maryland,  and  Atlantic  States  to  western  P'lorida  and  west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
from  southern  Alberta  to  northern  New  Mexico. 


il 

Names  in  use.— Cottonwood  (N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
W.  Va.,  N.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  .^liss..  La.,  Tex.,  Cal.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Wis., 
Kaiis.,  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Minn,,  :Mieli,,  Ohio,  Ont.,  Colo.,  Mont.,  N,  Dak,, 
S.  Dak,);  Big  Cottonwood  (Miss.,  Xebr,);  Yellow  Cottonwood  (Ark., 
Iowa,  Nebr.);  Cotton-tree  (N.  Y.);  Carolina  Poplar  (Pa,,  iliss.,  La., 
N.  ]\Iex,:  Ind,,  Ohio);  Xecklace  Poplar  (Tex,,  Colo,);  Vermont  Poplar 
(Vt.);  Whitewood  (Iowa);  Broad-leaved  Cottonwood  (Colo.). 

A  AKIETIES   DISTINGLISHKD    IX    CULTIVATION. 


Populus  deltoides  aurea  (Nichol.)  8udw, 
Populus  deltoides  erecta  (Selys)  Sudw. 
Populus  deltoides  crispa  (Dipp,)  Sudw. 


Goldenleaf  Cottoii'wood. 

Erect  Cottouwood. 

Crisp-leaf  Cottonwood. 


Populus  fremontii'  Wats.  Fremont  Cottonwood. 

Range. — Westein  Califoriiia  (Sacramento  River)  to  Lower  California ;  eastward  to 
central  Nevada,  southern  Utah  and  Colorado,  western  Texas  and  north(!rn  Mexico, 

is^AMES  IN  USE.— Cottonwood  (Cal.,  Utah) ;  White  Cottonwood  (N. 
Mex.). 
Populus  alba  Linn.  "White  Poplar. 

Range. — Europe.     Widely  naturalized  in  the  United  States  T)y  cultivation. 

A'ARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CUI>TIVATH)N. 


Populus  alba  nivea  (Willd.)  Loud. 
Populus  alba  canescens  (Smith)  Loud. 
Popiilus  alba  canescens  lunbraculifera  Sndw, 
Populus  alba  boUeana  Louche. 
Populus  alba  nutans  Sudw. 
Populus  alba  globosa  Dipp. 


Sno-wy  Poplar, 

Silver  Poplar. 

"Weeping  Silver  Poplar. 

Bolle  Poplar. 

"Weeping  "White  Poplar. 

Roundtop  Poplar. 


Populus  nigra  Linn.  Black  Poplar. 

Range. — Europe.     Naturalized  in  several  localities  in  the  East. 

VARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED   IN    CULTIVATION. 


Populus  nigra  italica  Du  Roi 
Populus,  nigra  elegans  Bailey. 


Isombardy  Poplar.       j       _^ 


BETULA  Linn.  ,< 

Betula  populifolia  Marsh.  White  Birch. 

Range. — From  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  Lower  St.  Lawrence  River  south- 
ward (mostly  in  coast  region)  to  Delaware  (Newcastle  County)  and  westward  through 
uorthern  New  England  and  New  York  to  Lake  Ontario  (southern  shores). 

Xames  in  use.— White  Birch  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  X.  J., 
Penn.,  Del.,  Out.);  Gray  Birch  (Me.,  R.  L,  Mass.);  Oldfield  Birch; 
Poverty  Birch  (Me.);  Poplar  leaved  Birch;  Small  White  Birch  (Vt.). 
Betula  populifolia  x  papyrifera  Sargent. 

Range. — Massachusetts  and  New  Haippshire — local. 


1  Includes  P.  Fremontii  var.  Wializeni  Wata. 


JifipHAd 


^*M^ 


AkhiAJbA^ 


^  illfVjUV^ ' 


48 


0 


VARIETY    DISTINGUISIIKI)    IN    CTI.TIVATIOX. 

Betiila  popiilifolia  purpurea  Hort.  Am. 
Betula  papyrifera  Marsh.  Paper  Birch. 

RaN(;e. — From  Labrador  to  Hudson  Bay  (southern  shores j,  (Jreut  liear  Lake, 
Ynkon  Kiver  and  coast  of  Ahiska;  sontliward  to  New  York  (Long  Island)  and  north- 
ern Pennsylvania,  central  Michigan,  and  Minnesota,  northern  Neliraska  (hlufls  of 
Niobrara  River),  Dakota  (Black  Hills),  northern  Montana,  and  north  western  Wa.sli- 
ington  (near  Seattle). 

Names  in  u.^k. — Paper  lUrcli  (N.  II.,  Yt.,  Mass.,  li.  L,  Conn.,  N,  Y., 
Wis.,  Mich.,  Miim.,Ont.);  Canoe  Birch  (Me.,  Yt.,  N.  H.,  11.  I.,  .Alass., 
K.  Y.,  Pa.,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  Ont.) ;  White  Birch  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Yt.,  R.  1., 
N.  Y..  N.  J.,  W^is.,  Minn.,  Mich.,  Nebr.,  Ont.);  Silver  Birch  (Minn.); 
Large  White  Birch  (Yt.);  Boleau  (Quebec). 

Betula  papyrifera  minor  (Tuck.)  Wats.  »&  Coult. 

Alpine  Paper  Birch. 

I\^\_NGK. — Northern  New  England  (mountains). 

Betula  occidentalis  Hook.  'Western  Birch. 

Raxck. — From  British  Columbia  (upper  Fraser  and  Pease  rivers)  south  to  Cali- 
fornia (valleys  of  Mount  Shasta  and  eastern  slopes  of  the  northern  Siena  Nevada); 
eastward  in  British  America  to  eastern  Alberta  and  along  the  Saskatchewan  Kiver 
to  Edmonton,  and  south  in  the  Rocky  ^Mountains  and  other  interior  ranges  to  Nevada, 
Utah,  northern  New  Mexico;  east  to  Dakota  (Black  Hills),  northwestern  Nebraska, 
and  eastern  base  of  Rockies  in  Colorado. 

Names  in  use. — Black  Bircli  (Cal.,  Colo.,  Mont.,  Utah);  Canon 
Birch  (Utah);  Sweet  Birch  (Idaho);  Cherry  Birch  (Idaho);  Gray  Birch 
(Mont.);  Water  Birch  (Colo.);  Western  Birch. 

Betula  nigra  Linn.    Oficni^   ^OJ^aS^Javi^  .  River  Birch. 

Uance. — Massachusetts  (Nashua  River  near  F'itchburg;  Merrimac  River  near 
Lawrence  and  Lowell;  Spicket  and  Shawsheen  rivers) ;  New  York  (Wading  River, 
Loui!,-  Island)  and  southward  east  of  the  Alleghenies  to  western  Florida;  west  in 
Gulf  States  to  Texas  (Trinity  River)  and  north  through  Mississippi  to  Indian  Terri- 
tory, eastern  Kansas,  eastern  Nebraska  (Missouri  River  bottoms),  central  Minnesota, 
southern  Wisconsin  (near  Madison),  and  Ohio. 

Names  in  use.— Red  Birch  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  N.  C, 
S.  C,  La.,  Mo.,  Wis.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Ohio);  River  Birch  (Mass.,  R.  I., 
N.  J.,  Del.,  Pa.,  W.  Ya.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  111.,  Wis.,  Ohio) ;  Water 
Birch  (W.  Ya.,  Kans.);  Blue  Bircli  (Ark.);  Black  Birch  (Fla.,  Tenu., 
Tex.);  Birch  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Miss.,  La.). 

Betula  lutea  ^Nlichx.  f.  Yello-w  Birch. 

Ran(;k. — From  Newfoundland  and  along  the  northern  shores  of  St.  Lawrence 
Gulf  to  Abittibi  Tiake  and  Rainy  River;  southward  to  northern  Minnesota  and 
through  the  Northern  States  to  easteru  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and  Delaware. 

Names  in  use. — Yellow  Birch  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Yt.,  Mass.,  Conn.,  R.  I., 
N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  111.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  N.  Dak.,  Ont.);  Gray 
Birch  (Yt,  R.  I.,  Pa.,  Mich.,  Minn.);  Swamp  Birch  (Minn.);  Silver 
Birch  (N.  H.);  Merisier  (Quebec);  Merisier  Rouge  (Quebec). 


Bettila  lenta  Linn,        '  ^-iAA^e^  S-weet  Birch. 

IvANGE. — Xt'wfouudlaiul  to  northwostern  Outaiio  iiutl  soutlnvanl  to  southcrc 
Indiana  and  Illiuois,  and  along  the  Allegheny  Mountains  to  central  Kentnrky, 
Teunesset',  and  Avestern  Florida. 

Kajvtes  in  use.— Sweet  Birch  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N".  Y., 
X.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  S.  ( ".,  Mich.,  Miun.);  Birch  (K  C);  Black  Birch  (X.  H., 
\t..  :\rass.,  H.  I.,  Conn.,  X.  Y.,  X.  J.,  Pa.,  W.  Va.,  Ga.,  111.,  lud.,  Mich., 
Ohio);  Cherry  Birch  (X.  H.,  R.  I.,  X.  Y.,  Pa.,  Va.,  Del.,  X.  C,  S.  C, 
Fla.,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Out);  River  Birch  (Minn.);  Mahogany  Birch  (X.  C, 
S.  C);  Mountain  Mahogany  (S.  C). 

ALNUS  Ehrh. 
Alnus  maritima  (Marsh.)  Muehl.  Seaside  Alder. 

Kaxge. — Southern  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Delaware  and  Maryland  (Nauticoku 
River  near  Seaford,  Del.;  Wicomico  River  near  Salisbury,  Md.) :  Indian  Territory 
(Red  River). 

Xames  in  use. — Seaside  Alder  (Del.);  Alder  (Del.). 

Alnus  acuminata  H.  B.  K.  Lanceleaf  Alder. 

Alnus  oblongifolia  Torr. 

Range. — Southern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  (canyons  of  mountains);  southern 
Mexico,  Central  America  to  Peru  (Andes^. 

Alnus  rhombifolia  Xutt.  White  Alder. 

Raxge. — From  northern  Idaho  to  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  of 
\A'ashington  and  southeastern  Cregon,  and  southward  through  California  (coast 
ranges,  western  slopes  Sierra  Nevada,  San  Bernardino,  San  Jacinto,  and  Cnayamaca 
mountains). 

Xames  in  use. — Alder  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  Western  or  California  Alder 
(Idaho);  Mountain  Alder. 

Alnus  tenuifolia  Xutt.  Paperleaf  Alder. 

Alnus  incana  var.  virescens  Wats. 

Raxge. — From  British  Columbia  (Kicking  Horse  Lake  to  Lower  Fraser  River) 
through  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  northern  New  Mexico,  to  southern  California 
(Sierra  Nevada),  and  Lower  California. 

Alnus  oregona  Xutt.  Red  Alder. 

Raxge. — From  Sitka  (through  islands  and  coast  ranges  of  British  Columbia, 
western  Washington,  and  Oregon)  to  California  (coast  ranges  to  Santa  Inez  Moun- 
tains, near  Santa  Barbara). 

Xames  in  use. — Alder  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  Red  Alder  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  West- 
ern or  Red  Alder. 
Alnus  glutinosa  (Linn.)  Gsertii.  European  Alder. 

RaX(;e. — Europe  and  northern  Asia,  but  naturalized  in  few  localities  in  the  United 
States. 

varieties    distinguished    IX    CULTIVATION. 

Alnus  glutinosa  quercifolia  Willd. 
Alnus  glutinosa  laciniata  (Khr. )  Willd. 
Alnus  glutinosa  incisa  Willd. 
Alnus  glutinosa  aurea  (Koch)  Nichol. 
19193— Xo.  17 4 


V  i/v»*^»v  ■ 


50 


Jl\ylfMi4i     OSTRYA  Scop. 


:  .sjnitl*  to  northern  Flyida  (near 

,  R.  r,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa., 


^trya  virginikna '  (Mill.)  Ivocb.  Hornbeam 

KaN(;k.  —  FiDiu  Nova  Scotia  and  Capt-  Hrentoii  Island  and  New  Urunssvick  (Ba.\  i 
("lialeur  and  alonj^  .St.  Lawrence  and  Lower  Ottawa  rivers  and  over  northern  shums 
of  Lake    llnrou)  to  western    Ontario,  northern  Minnesota,   Dakota  (Black   Hilla), 
eastern  and  northern  Nebraska,  eastern  J-Cansasj 
.Jacksonville)  and  eastern  Texas.  \fiXt^*'t^ 

Names  in  use. — Hop  Ilonibeain  (Vt. 
Dfl.,  K  C,  S.  C.  Ala..  Tex..  Ark.,  Ohio,  111.,  lud..  Wis.,  .Alinn.,  Kans., 
Xebr.,  iS.  Dak.);  Ironwood  (K.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  VV.  Va..  K  C, 
S.  C,  Ala.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  111.,  Iowa,  Mich.,  Wis.,  Minn., 
S.  Dak.,  Nebr.,  Out.);  Leverwood  (Vt.,  Mass.,  E.  I.,  X.  Y.,  Pa..  Kans.); 
lionibeam  (R.  I. .,  N.  Y.,  Fla..  S.  C,  La.);  Hardback  (Vt.). 
Ostrya  knoTvltoni  Coville.  Knowlton  Hornbeam. 

Kax(;i;. — Arizona  (canyon  of  the  Colorado  Eiver  70  miles  north  of  Flagstaff,  where 
Tolf.ee  (P.  O.)  is  located.  Abnndant  along  the  trail  leading  to  the  bottom  of  the 
canyon,  at  6,000  to  7,000  feet  elevation).  Range  insufficiently  understood  ;  southern 
Mexico  and  Central  America  (mountains). 

Blue  Beech. 

Kanck. — Southern  and  western  Quebec  to  Georgian  Bay  (north  shores)  and  south- 
ward to  Florida  (Cape  Malabar  and  Tampa  Bay) ;  west  in  United  States  to  northi^n 
Minnesota,  eastern  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  Indian  Territory  and  Texas  ('lYiuity  River). 

Names  tn  use.— Blue  Beach  (N.  H.,  Vt,  li.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Miss.,  Tex.. 
Xy.,  Mich.,  Iowa,  Nebr.,  Minu.,^Ohi«),  Out.);  Water  Beech  (R.  I.,  N.  Y., 
Pa.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  Ohio,*Tll.,  Ihd.,  Mftlrl:,  Minn..  Nebr.,  Kans.);  Horu- 
beaiu  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  Couu..  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J..  Pa.,  Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C. 
Ala.,Tex.,  Ky.,  111.,  Kans.,  Miun.);  Ironwood  (Me.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.Y., 
N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  K  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  ALi.,  Ln.,Tex.!  Mo.,  Wis.,  111..  Iowa, 
Kans.,  Minn.,  Ohio.  XovajScotia);  0-taii-talu--te-wgli/ip  "  A  lean  tree" 
(Mi^ms,N.Y.).     -(ROitf   ->t/Vt  JjtJ<XK4 

Familv  F-A^G^CE^E. 


CARPINUS  Linn. 
^arpinus  caroliniana  Walt. 


inn. 


Beech. 


,       FAGUS  Linn. 

iis  atropunicea'^Marsh.)  Sudworth. 
PaC'Us  feuruginea  Ait. 

Range. — Nova  Scotia  to  Lake  Huron  (north  shores)  and  northern  Wiscoiisin  ;  south 
to  western  Florida  and  west  to  southeastern  Missouri  and  i'exas  (Trinity  River). 

Names  in  use.— Beech  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Coun.,  N.  Y., 
N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex., 
Ark.,  Ky.,  :\Io.,  Ohio,  111.,  Ind.,  Mich.,  Nebr.,  Miun.,  Out.);  Red  Beech 
(Me.,  Vt.,  Ky.,  Ohio);  White  Beech  (Me.,  Ohio,  Mich.);  Ridge  Beech 

(Ark.). 


'The  Ostrya  reported  from  southern  Mexico  and  (iuatemala  and  referred  to  this 
species  is  nrobably  (Kknbwiloni.     I  have  not  seen  specimens  of  the  Mexican  plant. 


51 


CASTANOPSIS  8i)acb. 
Castanopsis  chrysophylla  (IJook.)  de  C,     Goldenleaf  Chinquapin. 

Kaxcik. — Pacific  coast  rcj^ion  iVoiii  tiie  CoJiimbia  l\i\er  laloiiLi  wcsteiii  sloiies  of 
Cascade  Wonntaiiis  and  Siena  Nevada  i  to  southern  California  (San  .Jacinto 
Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Cliinqunpin  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  Cliestiiut  (Cal,);  Western 
Chiuqua])in. 

CASTANEA  Adans. 


Castanea  pumila  (Linn.)  Mill. 


Chinquapin 


ZbjtSL^      Chastaut,  ,AlM 


Range.  —  From  southern  Pennsylvania  ( .Vdains,  York,  Franklin,  and  Cumberland, 
counties)  to  northern  Flori(hi  and  eastern   iexas  (Neches  Piver  .  ^ 

Names  in  itse.— Cbin(iua])in  (Del.,  K  J.,  Pa.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  "^X^OuuA 
S.C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla..   Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Ohio,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Mich.* 
(cult.). 
Castanea  dentata  (Marsh.)  Borkli. 

Castanea  yesca /y  Americana  Miehx.  kJl  JP^  m  ^y} 

Castanea  vulgaris  r  Americana  A.  de  C.     "J '"^'■'w'^*^^'— 3 

Range. — From  soiithern  Elaine  to  northwestern  Vermont  (\Yiuooski  River),  south{^,. , 
em  Ontario,  and  southern  shores  of  Lake  Ontario  to  southeastern  Michigan;  south-  4^ 
ward  to  Delaware  and  southeastern  Indiana,  and  on  the  Allcijheny  Mountains  to 
central  Kentucky  and  Tenue.ssee,  central  Alabama,  and  Mississippi. 

Na:mes  in  use.— Chestnut  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  li,  L,  Conn.,  N.  Y., 
K  J.,  Pa..  Del,  Ya.,W.Va.,  N.  C,  Ca.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  Kj^,  Mo.,  MJch..  Opt.) ;     -   . 
0-heli-valytah  =  ''Prickly  P.ur"  (Indians^  N.  Y.).  J^/JlL^^Cth^  rtAhMiJjtl 

Quercus  alba  Linn.  i^xj^uTfUTM^^ '^^^  White  Oak. 

Range. — From  southern  Maine'o  sonthwester'  Queffec  and  through  central  and 
southern  Ontario,  lower  peninsula  of  Michigan  and  southern  Minnesota  to  south- 
eastern Nebraska  and  eastern  Kansas;  sdtuth  to  uoEthern  Florida  and  Texas  (Brazos 
River).        P-'     >^.     ."'O     -^'      U-tr.      n^^l^A.^JZ      ,^V.v/V 

Names  in  use.— White  Oak  ( Me., N.H.,Yt.,  Mass., R.L, Conn.,  KY. 
X.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  X.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Ga..  Miss.,  La.,  Tex. 
Ky.,  Mo.,  Ohio,  111.,  Ind.,  Kans.,  Xebr.,  Mich.,Wis.,  Minn.,  S.  Dak.  (cult.), 
Iowa,  Out.);  Stave  Oak  (Ark.). 
Quercus  alba  x  macrocarpa  Engelni. 

Range.— Illinois  (near  Fountaiudale  and  Athens);  Vermont  (near  Charlotte). 
Quercus  alba  x  minor  Coulter. 

Range.— Illinois  (Fountaiudale);  Maryland  (Silver  Springs);  Missouri  (Alien- 
to  \n  n  ' . 

Quercus  albaxprinus  Engelm. 

Range.— District  of    Columbia;     Vermont    (near    Charlotte);    Tennessee    (near' 

Fowlei). 

Quercus  lobata  Xee.  California  "White  Oak.  ^ 

Range.— Western  California  (Sierra  Nevada  to  the  ocean,  from  the  upper  Sacra-/  X     , 
minto  to  Tejon  Pass,  thence  to  Antelope  Valley  and  to  Santa  Monica).  -«V  ^ 

Names  in  use.— California  White  Oak  (Cal.):  Weeping  Oak  (Cal.);^ 
Valley  Oak   (Cal.)yH^e"  (Mexu-ans);   White  Oak  (Cal.);  Swamp 
Oak  (Cal.).         aUAe^MA,  OW.  .         (<yi/^  ^^i^frJif^ 


52 
'Quercus  breweri  Biij>elm.  Shin  Oak. 

Ka>'GK. — Caliioruia  xyesteni  slopes  of  .Sierra  Nevada  from  northern  Ixmler  of  the 
;State  to  Tulare  County). 

Quercus  garryana  Dougl.  Pacific  Post  Oak. 

Kangk. — From  soutliern  Vaiicoiivt^r  Island  and  southwestern  British  Columbia 
(lower  Fraser  River)  south  through  western  Washington,  and  Oregon  and  California 
(coast  A-alleys  to  Santa  Cruz  Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — White  Oak  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  Oregon  White  Oak  (Cal.); 
Pacific  Post  Oak  (Oreg.);  Oregon  Oak  (Oreg.);  Western  White  Oak 
(Oreg.). 

Quercus  gambelii  Xutt.  G-ambel  Oak. 

Quercus  undulata  .»  Oambelii  Engelm. 

Range. — From  Colorado  (eastern  slopes  Rocky  Mountains  and  as  far  north  as  €he 
tlivido  between  Platte  and  Arkansas  rivers)  to  Utah  (Wasatch  Mountains),  and 
southward  through  the  mountains  to  western  Texas  (Pecos  River  region)  and  south- 
western ^'evada  (Charlestown  Mountains);  Mexico  (mountains  of  northern  Sonora). 

Names  in  use. — Scrub  Oak  (N.  3Iex.,  Ariz.,  Colo.,  Nev.,  Utah); 
Kooky  Mountain  Scrub  Oak(Nev.);  Mountain  Oak  (Nev.);  Pin  Oak 
(Ariz.):  White  Oak;  Shin  Oak.  /      "\ 

Qusrcus  minor  (Marsh.)  Sargent.   (^  Post  Oak. 

QuEiicus  OHTUSiLOBA  Michx.^-O 

Range. — From  .southern  Massachusetts  (jiear  nrewstt^r.  Cape  Cod,  and  islands  of 
Marthas  Vineyard  and  Naushon),  Rhode  mland' (\Xort4i  Kingston), and  New  York 
(Long  Island)  to  northern  Florida,  southern  4l''^'""'^>  *^"*i  Mississippi;  west  from 
Long  Island  to  Missouri,  eastern  Kansas,  Indian  Territory,  and  Texas  (here  south  to 
San  Antonio  River  and  west  to  one  hundredth  meridian). 

Names  in  use.— Po.st  Oak  (Coun.,  E.  I.,  N.  J.,  Pa,  Del.,  W.  Va., 

N.  C,  S.  0.,  Ala.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  A^-k.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind., 

fowa,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Out.);  Box  Whit<'  Oak  (R.  I.);  Iron  Oak  (Del., 

Miss.,  Nebr.);  Cheiie  etoile  (Quebec):  Overcup  Oak  (Fla.);  White  Oak 

Ky.,  Ind.) ;  Box  Oak  (Md.) ;  Brash  Oak  (Md.). 

Quercus  chapmani  Sargent.  Chapman  Oak. 

RaN(;e. — South  Carolina  to  Florida  (connnouly  lipar  the  coast). 

Ouercus  ina.croca.icp^^W<i^^^-^^^Yy^r^fAh^ijL^  s^Bttt-Q^ 

Range. — From  ^jy  I3runswick  aiicljiNova  .Scotia  ~\^slwamrTin)iiT;Tr  ST.'  TTjItvrt'W'e* 
River  vallej',  Ontario,  southwestern  ^fanitoba  (south   Lake  Winnipeg);  from  Maine 

'enobscot  River  region),  Vermont  (sjiores  Lake  Champlain),  Massachusetts  (Ware 
River),  Peuusylvama^THancaster  CtMrnty)  west  to  Montana  (eastern  base  Rocky 
.Mountains),  western  Nebraska,  ceutjsin  Kansas,  and  south  westward  into  ceuiral 
TgjiueiJ-iee,  Indian  Terrifory,  and  jC^Jf^  (to  Nueces  River). 

Names  in  use.— Bur  Oak^^t.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  Ala.,  Miss., 
La.,  T^^-.,  Ai'k.,  Mo.,  Ohio,  ^111.,  Ky.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Wis.,  Mich., 
Minn.,  N.  Dak.,  S.  Dak.);o>Iossycup  Oak  (Mass.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Miss.,  La., 
Tex.,  Ark.,  Ill,,  Iowa,  Nebr.,  Kans.,  Ont.);  Overcup  Oak  (R.  1.,  Del., 
Pa.,  Miss.,  La.,  111.,  Minn.);  Blufe  Oak  (Ont.);  Scrub  Oak  \ Nebr..  Minn.); 
Overcup  White  Oak  (Vt.):  :\[ossycup  White  Cbik  (Minn.) 

Quercus  lyrata  NValt3U»JW"  lAitO-wv.  -4«1J^I||L,       Overcup  Oak. 

r^       AS      Range. — From  Maryland  (Potomac  River  near  iJistrict  orColunibia,  and  Patuxent 
'^  •C#OJRivei',  l^kmiles^elow  Tjaurel)  southward  to  western   Florijla  and  west  through  the 


53 

Gulf  re<?ion  to  Texas  (Trinity  River),  throuj'h  Arkansas,  sontliwestern  Missour 
(only  near  Allenton),  central  IVTuiossee,  southern  Indiana,  Illinois  (K'ales  Mill  on 
Einl>:irras  River  iu  southeastern  .Ias])er  County). 

Names  in  use. — Overcup  Oak  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.-,  Fla.,  AUi.,  ]\Iis.s.,  La., 
Tex.,  Ark.,  111.);  Swamp  Post  Oak  (Ala.,  S.  C,  Miss.,  La.,  Mo.);  Water 


Swamp  White  Oak  (Tex.). 

Chestnut  Oak. 

ind  Mount  Agauienticns)  ;in(l  eastern 

t  of  Colnniliia),  and  in  the  mountains 

)  Lake  Chainplain  and  the  (ienesee 

res  from  Niasrara  River  to  Amhurst- 


.,N.J.,Pa.,1^ 


White  Oak  (S.  C,  Miss.):  Oak 

Quercus  prinus  Linn. 

Range. — From  southern  Maine 
Massachusetts  (Blue  Hills)  to  Maryl 
to  northern  Georgia  and  Alabama 
River  in  New  York,  to  Lake  Erie  i 
burg),  to  central  Kentucky  and  T 

Names  in  use. — ChestnntjOak  (Mask,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y 
Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  (J.,  Ga.I^Jvy.)h  li^ck  Chestnnt  Oak  (Mass.,  R.  I 
Pa.,  Del.,  Ala.);  Rock  Oak  (NS3^.^el.,  Pa.).;  Tanbark  Oak;  Swamp 

Cliestnut  Oak  (N.  C);  Mountain  (|ak  (Ala.). 

Quercus  acuminata  (Michx.)  Il»uba.  Chinquapin  Oak. 

RaN(;e. — From  New  York  (GardeHj^s^Island  in  Lake  Champlain  and  on  Hudson 
River  north  of  Newburg)  westwWrd  through  southern  Ontario  to  southeastern 
Nebraska  and  eastern  Kansas;  southward  in  the  Atlantic  region  to  the  District  of 
Columbia  (and  upper  Potomac  li^ver),  ancLwest  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains  to  cen- 
tral Alabama  and  Mississippi,  through  Arkansas  and  northern  Louisiana  to  the 
eastern  border  of  Indian  Territoly  and  Texas  (to  Nueces  River,  and  canyons  of  Gua- 
dalupe Mountains  in  extreme  western  p^t  of  State ,i. 

Names  in  use. — Oliestn^t  Oi\k  (Conn.,  Del.,  Ala.,  N.  C,  Miss.,  La., 
Tex.,  Ohio,  111.,  Mich.,  Kans.^Nel^r.) ;  Chinquapin  Oak  (Mass.,  11. 1.,  Pa. 
Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Ark.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  Nebr.,  Kans.) 
Pin  Oak  (Kans.,  Ark.);  Yellow  Oak  (111.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Mich.);  Scrub 
Oak  (N.  Y.);  Dwarf  Chestnut  Oak  (Mass.,  N.  C,  Tenn.);  Shrub  Oak 
(Nebr.);  White  Oak  (Tenn.);  Rock  Oak  (Ark.). 
Quercus  prinoides  Willd.  D-warf  Chinquapin  Oak. 

Range.- -Massachusetts  (Ess<'X  Comity)  to  North  Carolina  and  westward  to  south- 
eastern Nebraska,  ceniraL Kansas*  Indian   Teiritiuiv,   :kn<ii  eastern    'liexas^ 


HI 


imperfectly  understoo 


yy^ 


>rth.^    I        S-w^uip  White  <^lfc— — *" 


Quercus  platanoides  (Lam.)  Sudwor  ^  -.^  .      .  a^     « 

Quercus  bicolor  Willd.     ^      MJCIwOe 'WA'»al^>V^t^^ 

Range.— From  southern  Maine  tt>"-4i^rtheru  Vermont  an<l  southwestern  Qnebec ;  'Ir*'*^ 
■west  through  Ontario  and  8ontherri4)eninsuliL,of  Michigan  to  southeastern  Iomvh  and  f^pj^J^f^ 
western  Missouri;  south  to  the  (^District  ol*  Columbia,  northern  Kentucky  and 
Arkansas,  and  along  the  AppalachiJin  Mountauis  to  northern  Georgia. 

Names  in  use.— Swamj)  White  Oal<  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y., 
N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  Mo.,  Ill>,  Ind..  Iowa,  Micli..Ont.) ;  Swamp  Oak 
(R.  I.,  Pa,  Mich.).  \J  ^X^^LA-      f^MC 

Quercus  michauxii  Nutt.  \  ^  Cow  Oak. 

Rangk.— From  Delawaie  (near  Wilmington)  to  northern  Florida;  west  thrcmgh 
the  Gulf  region  to  Texas  (Trinity  River),  and  through  Arkansas  and  southeastern 
Missouri  to  central  Tennessee  and|  l^ntutky,  Ijlinois,  ai}#  Indiana  (in  valley  lower 

Wabash  River).  Xe4M>^     rV^-wJjM^    tJjtYlMZ*^- 

Names  in  use.— Basket  Oak  (Ala..  .Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.);  Cow  Oak 
(Ala.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo. )j  Sw^p  White  Oak  (Del.,  Ala.);  Swamps 
Chestnut  Oak  (Fla.) 


^r^^ 


).);  Swamp  \ 


nv 


54 
Quercus  michauxii  x  macrocarpa  Sudworth. 

Kangk. — Simtliwcstfrii  Tennessee  (near  Covinj;ton). 

Quercus  breviloba  (Torr.)  Sargent.  Durand  Oak. 

Quercus  durandii  Buckl. 

Range.— Central  Alabama  (and  to  Mulberry  Fork  of  Tombigbee  River,  in  filonnt 
County)  and  Mississippi  (near  Columbus  and  near  Mhoons  Valley);  Louisiana  (Red 
River  near  Shreveport);  Texas  (I'rom  near  Dallas  west  to  central  part  of  the  State 
.and  southward  on  streams  flowing  into  the  Gulf  to  near  Monterey). 

Names  in  use. — White  Oak  (Tex.);  Texas  White  Oak  (Ala.);  Shin 
Oak  (Tex.);  Pin  Oak  (Tex.):  Bastard  Oak  (Ala.,  La.,  Tex.);   Basket 
AuiC  Oak  (Ala.,  La.,  Tex.);   Dnrand's  Oak  (Ala.,  La.,  Tex.). 

^^•Otjuercus  undulata  '''<>rr.^n8^iij*f^  Rocky  Mountain  Oak. 

Rangk. — Colorado  to  western  Texa8(mouutains)  and  thr^^uh  X^w  Mexico  and 
Arizona  to  southern  Utah  and  Nevada ;  northern  Mexico. 

Names  in  ise. — Scrub  Oak;  Shin  Oak. 
Quercus  douglasii  Hook.  &  Arii.  (California)  Rock  Oak. 

Range. — California  (from  Mendocino  County  and  valley  of  upper  S  iiraraento 
River  .southward  on  westward  slopes  of  vSierra  Nevada  and  valleys  of  the  coast 
ranges  to  the  Tehachapi  Pass  and  across  to  the  border  of  the  Mohave  Desert  . 

Names  in  use. — Mountain   White   Oak    (Cal.);    Hock   Oak   (Cal,); 
White  Oak  (CaL);  Blue  Oak  (Cali.   x.^^^j^CkmJl'i 
Quercus  engelmanni  Greene.  "  r  Engelmann  Oak. 

Ra.ngk. — .Southwestern  California  (in  a  belt  15  miles  wide  from  vicinity  ot  Sierra 
Madre  to  the  mesa  east  of  San  Diego). 
Names  in  use. — Eiigelniann's  Oak;  Evergreen  White  Oak. 

Quercus  oblongifolia  Torr.  Blue  Oak. 

Range. — Western  Texas  (Chisos  Mountains)  through  southern  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  and  south  into  iiorthern  Mexico. 

Name  in  use. — White 


hern  Mexico.  ^,  f\ 


Quercus  arizonica  Sargent.  Arizona  White  Oak. 

Range. — Southern  New  Mexico  and  Arii^tna. 

Name  tn  use.— White  Oak.        &A</»AAZ«4t  . 

U  Quercus  reticulata  Humb.  &  Bonpl.  Netleaf  Oak. 

Range. — Southern  New  Mexico  (Mount  Graham,  Santa  Rita,  Huachuca,  Chiri- 
cahiia,  and  Santa  Catalina  mountains)  and  Ar.zona  (San  Luis  and  Aniin;is  moun- 
tains). 

Quercus  toumeyi  Sargent.  Tourney  Oak. 

Han(. I..  — Southeastern  Arizona  (Mule  Mountain,  Cochise  County) 

.  Quercus  dumosa  Nutt.  (California)  Scrub  Oak. 

Range. — California  (western  slopes  of  Sierra  Nevada;  coast  ranges  south  of  San 
J'rancisco  liay;  islands  otf  southern  coast  and  inland  to  Mohave  Desert;  San  Ber- 
nardino and  San  .Jacinto  mountains);  Lower  California  (to  near  San  Telmo). 

Quercus  dumosa  revoluta  ^Sargent.  Curl-leaf  Scrub  Oak. 

Range. — Northern  California  (San  Francisco  Bay  to  Mendociun  County  and  Napa 
Valley). 


^nw* 


'^^"'-^■^^  ^UJJ^J^iti^L^jJ^ 


Quercus  virginiana'  ?*Ih1. 

QUEKCl  S  YIRKNS   Ait.  ''      Li^ji^ 

Kanck. — From  Virgiuia  (shores  ot  Mobjack  Bay),  oti  islai^ 
and  tlirough  southern  Florida  (Biscayne  Bay)  and  alonji  the  Gull"  coast  (from  Caj)!-  /  a  J^ 
Romano)  to  western  Texas  (mouth  ot  Kio  Grande  Hiver  and  inland  to  tb«  Red  Ixiver 
and  Apache  and  Guadalupe  mountains);   Fowet  CalifoMiia    (^lirilllores),  son^ern 
Mexifo.  Central  America,  and  Cuba.  l^/£C0i  ''^v^LA^   "^t^  *i'tytt\JfS§  , 

Names  in  use.—  Live  Oak  (Va.,  N.  G.,  S.  ('..  (;a..  FLa.,  Ala.,  Miss., 
La.,  Tex.,  CaL);  Cbtue  Yeit  (La.).         P^^dkA^^^-yKUl^ 

Quercus  emoryi  Torr.  Emory  Oak. 

Range.  —  Mountains  of  western  Texas  and  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  sDUtb  of 
the  Colorado  plateau;  Mexico  (mountains  of  Nuevo  Leon,  Cliibualnia.  and  Souora). 

Names  in  use. — Emory's  Oak  (Cal.);  BlarkOak  i  Aii/    N.  Mcx.). 
Quercus  cnrysolepis  l..iebin.  Canyon  Live  Oak. 

RANt;E. — From  southern  Oregon  (Cow  Creek  V.-illey)  through  Califmnia  (ciast 
ranges,  western  slopes  Sierra  Nevada,  San  Bernardino,  San  .Jacinto,  and  Cuyamat-a 
mountains)  to  Lower  California  (Mount  San  Pedro  Martir);  (ami  mountain  sum- 
mits) southern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico;  Mexico  (northern  Souora). 

Names  in  use.— Live  Oak  (CaL,  Oreg.);  Maul  Oak  (Cal.);  Iron  Oak 
(Cal.):  Valparaiso  Oak  (Cal.);  Black  Live  Oak  (Cal.);  Canyon  Live 
Oak  (CaL),  Canj'ou  Oak  (CaL);  Golden-cup  Oak  (Cal.);  Hickory  Oak 
(Kern  County,  Cal.). 

Quercus  chrysolepis  palmeri  Engelm.  Palmer  Oak. 

Range. — Boundary  between  California  and  Lower  California. 
Quercus  chrysolepis  vaccinifolia(Kell.)  Ensielni.  Huckleberry  Oak. 

Range. — California  (highest  elevations  Sierra  Nevada  i. 

Quercus  tomentella  Engelm.dwxVw.    m^tALUvJL^  vwv  V  OtA^^aviA 

R.\NGE. — Santa  Kosa.  Sauta  Cruz  (south  of  Santa  Barbara  i.  ."^anfa  Catilina  Islands, 
south  of  Cape  Vincent,  off  coast  of  Calilbrnia;  Guadalupe  Fslands,  ott  coast  of 
Lower  California. 

Quercus  agrifolia  Nee.  California  Live  Oak. 

Range. — From  northern  California  (Mendocino  County  and  along  the  coast  ranges 
and  islands)  to  Lower  California  (Mount  San  Pedro  Martir). 

Names  in  use. — Coast  Live  Oak  (CaL);  California  Live  Oak  (Cal.); 
Eiicina  (CaL);  Evergreen  Oak  (Cal.) 

Quercus  hypoleuca  Engelm.  Whiteleaf  Oak. 

Range. —  From  western  Texas  (Limpio  Mountains)  over  mountains  of  New  Mexico 
ami  Arizona,  south  of  the  Colorado  Plateau;  Mexico  (northern  Chihuahua  and 
Sonora). 

Names  in  use. — Oak  (Ariz.);  Mexican  Oak;  White  leaved  Oak. 


'Di.  J  K.  Small  has  recently  described  the  following  species  as  new.  I  have  not 
seen  specimens  ot  it,  but  it  appears  to  be  very  closely  related  to  (Quercus  rirgin'mna. 

(Jnenns  fieiititiata  Small  (Bull  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  vol.  24,  p.  4.3S.  1897).  A  shrub  or 
small  tree  6  to  1.5  feet  high.  ''Leaves  narrowly  oblong,  elliptic,  or  oblong-oblanee- 
olate,  3-6  cm  long,  entire,  obta.se  or  apiculate,  strongly  revolute,  mostly  gradually 
narrowed  at  the  base,  glabrous  and  parchment-like  above,  finely  tomentose  and  con- 
spicuously rngose  on  the  prominent  nerves  beneath  *  '  " ;  acorn><,  usually  2  at  the 
enijof  a  peduncle     *     *   Jt',  cups  turbinate     *     '     *."     Florida  (sandy  soil).      , 


56 


Quercus  -^vislizeni  A.  de  C.  Highland  Oak. 

liiANGK. — From  uortliern  California  (lower  slopes  Mount  Shasta  and  southward 
tbrough  the  coast  region  to  Santa  Lucia  Mountains,  Santa  Rosa  and  Santa  Cruz 
Islands,  and  lower  slopes  of  Sierra  Nevada  to  Tijon  Pass;  San  Rernadino,  Sau 
Jacinto,  and  Cuyamaca  mountains)  to  Lower  California  (Mount  Sau  I'edro  Martir). 

Names  in  use. — Live  Oak  (Cal.);  Highland  Live  Oak  (Oal.). 
Quercus  morehus    Ivell.  Morehus  Oak. 

Kaxge. — California  (Lake  County). 

Quercus  myrtifolia  Willd.  Myrtle  Oak. 

Kanok. — From  South  Carolina  (on  coast  and  islands)  to  eastern  Floriila.  and  from 
Biscayne  Bay  to  eastern  Lonisian; 


Quercus  rubra  Linn. 


)nisi:ni;i.  ^  a  _, 


Red  Oak. 


Range. — Nova  Scotia  and  southern  New  Brunswick  through  QutU)ec  and  along 
the  north  shores  of  Lake  Huron  to  near  Lake  Namekagou;  south  to  Middle  Tennes- 
see and  Virginia,  and  along  the  Appalachian  Mountains  to  northern  Georgia;  west 
to  eastern  Nebraska,  central  Kansas. 

Names  in  use.— Eed  Oak  (Me.,  Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  K.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J  , 
Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  Ky.,  111.,  lud.,  Iowa, 
Nebr.,  Kans.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  S.  Dak.,  Ont.) ;  Black  Oak  (Vt.,  Conn.,  N.  Y., 
Wis  ,  Iowa,  Nebr.,  S.  Dak.,  Ont.);  Spanish  Oak  (Pa.,  N.  C). 
Quercus  rubra  runcinata  A.  de  C. 

Rangk. — Missouri  (bottom  lands  opposite  St.  Louis). 

Quercus  texana  Buckl.  Texan  Oak. 

j^-RAN(;ft.^-From  northeastern   Iowa  (near  Waterloo)  and  central   Illinois  through 
Quthern  Illinois  and  Indiana,  western  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  to  Florida  vvalley 
ilachicola   River)  and  through   southern  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Louisiana  to 
^tern  'lexas  (Limpio  Mountains).     Range  imperfectly  known. 

Names  in  use.— Ked  Oak  (Tex.);  Spotted  Oak  (Tex.);  Spanish  Oak 
(Tex.). 

Quercus  coccinea  Muenchh.  Scarlet  Oak. 

Range.— From  Maine  (Androscoggin  River)  through  southern  ^e>\\  Hampshire 
and  Vermont  and  central  New  York  to  southern  Ontario;  west  through  centiiil 
Michigan  and  Minnesota  to  southeastern  Nebraska,  and  south  to  the  District  of 
Columbia,  northern  Illinois,  and  on  the  Allegheny  Mountains  to  North  Carolina  and 
eastern  'I'enuessee. 

Names  in  use.— Scarlet  Oak  (Vt,  Mass.,  li.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Pa.,  Del.,  N.  C,  Mo.,  III.,  Ind.,  Wis.,  Minn.,  Mich.,  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Ont.); 
Eed  Oak  (N.  C,  Ala.,  Wis.,  Nebr.,  Minn.);  Black  Oak  (Mo.,  111..  Iowa, 
Wis.);  Spanish  Oak  (N.  C). 

Quercus  coccinea  x  pumila  Sud worth. 

Kangk. — Ma.ssachnsetts  (near  Witiiwyijle). 

Quercus  velutina  Lam. 

Quercus  tinctoria  Bartr. 

Ran(;i:. — From  .southern  Maine  (coast)  toTiorthern  Veiilibnt,'^ 
Ontario  and  central  Minnesota;  south  to  northern  IloriUa,  wes 
Indian  Territory,  and  eastern  Texas. 

Names  in  use.— Black  Oak  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del , 
Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.C.,  S.  O.,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ohio^ll.,  Iowa. 
Kans.,  Nebr.,  Mich.,  Wis.,  Minn.,  Ont.) ;  Quer^tron  Oak  (dS!^.  C.,La., 


0^ 

Yellow  Oak. 


rn  and  western 
to  eastern  Kansas. 


57 

Kans.,  Minn.);  Yellow  Oak  (R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  111.,  Tex.,  Kans.,  Minn.);  Tan- 
bark  Oak  (111.);  Yellow-barked  Oak  (Minn.);  Spotted  Oak  (Mo.);  Yel- 
low-bark (R.  I.):  Dyer's  Oak  (Tex.). 
Quercus  californica  (Torr.)  Coop.  California  Black  Oak. 

Kaxge. — From  western  Orejjjou  (McKinzio  River)  to  the  southern  boundary  of 
California  (through  coast  mountains  and  on  western  slopes  of  Sierra  Nevada,  San 
Boniardino,  San  Jacinto,  and  Cuyainac-a  mountains). 

Names  in  use.— Black  Oak  (Cal.,  Oreg.)  5  Mountain  Black  Oak  (Cal.); 
Kellooo's  Oak  (Cal.);  California  Black  Oak  (Cal.). 
Quercus  catesbaei  Micbx.  Turkey  Oak. 

Kaxge. — In  c^^j^egiou  from  Xor1|i  Carolina  l|p  Florida  (Cape  Malabar  and  Tease 
Creek)  and  west^  eastern  T>onisiana. 

Names  in  use. — Turkey  Oak  (Fla.,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.);  Scrub 
Oak  (X.  C,  S.  C,  Fla..  Miss.);  Black  Jack  (S.  C);  Barren  Scrub  Oak; 
Forked-leaf  (S.  C);  Forked-leaf  Black  Jack. 

Quercus  catesbaei xbrevifolia  Sud worth. 
Rang?:. — Florida  (Lake  County). 

Quercus  catesbaei  x  laurifolia  Engelm. 

Range. — South  Carolina  (Bluliton). 

Quercus  sinuata  (Lam.)  Walt. 

Range. — South  Carolina  (near  Bluffton;  tiee  now  destroyed.) 

Quercus  digitata  (Marsh.)  Sud  worth.  f(j|^^f^]^^^^j^ —       Span 
Quercus  fax,cata  Michx.  ^^^Ni'lCU 

Range. — From  southern  New  Jersey  to  central  Florida  and  through  the  Gul 
States  to  eastern  Texas  (Brazos  River),  Arkansas,  southwestern  Missouri  to  middl 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  southern  Illinois  and  Indiana. 

Names  in  use. — Spanish  Oak  (Del.,Ya.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss 
La..  Tex.,  Mo.,  111.) ;  Red  Oak  (N.C.,Va.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ind.) 
Sj^anish  Water  Oak  (La.). 

Quercus  digitata  x  velutina  Sud  worth. 

Range. — Tennessee  (near  Covington). 

Quercus  palustris  Muenchh.  Pin  Oak. 

Range. — From  Massachusetts  (Connecticut  River,  near  Amherst)  to  southeastern 
Missouri,  and  south  to  Virginia  (Lower  Potomac  River),  central  Kentucky,  northern 
Arkansas,  and  eastern  border  of  Indian  Territory. 

Names  in  use. — Pin  Oak  (Mass.,  Conn.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Del..  Ya., 
Md.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111..  Wis.,  Iowa,  Kans.);  Swamp  Spanish  Oak  (Ark., 
Kans.);  Water  Oak  (R.  L,  111.);  Swamp  Oak  (Pa.,  Ohio,  Kans.):  Water 
Spanish  Oak  (Ark.). 

Quercus  pumila  (Marsh.)  Sud  worth.  Barren  Oak. 

Quercus  ilicifolia  Wang. 

Range. — From  Maine  (Mount  Desert  Island  off  the  coa.st)  through  eastern  and 
southern  New  England;  in  New  York  (Lake  George  and  valley  of  Hudson  River); 
New  Jersey  (pine  barrens) ;  eastern  Pennsylvania  (aud  along  the  Allegheny  Moun- 
tains— east  in  Maryland  to  Montgomery  County)  to  northwestern  North  Carolina 
(King  anil  Crowders  mountains). 

Na:mes  ijj.use. — Bear  Oak;  Barren  Oak  (Md.);  Dwarf  Black  Oak; 
Scrub  Oak. 


58 
Quercus  georgiana  ('urtis.  Georgia  Oak. 

Kanck. — Central  G«M)rgi:i  (Stone  Mountain,  Little  Stone  Mountain,  9  miles  south 
of  Stone  Mountain,  and  other  granite  hills  12  to  18 miles  eastward  in  Dekalb  Connty). 

Quercus  georgiana  x  marilandic a  Sargent. 

Ran(;k. — Central  (ieorj^ia  (Stone  Mountain,  Dekalb  Connty). 

Quercus  marilandica  Mueuchh.  Black  Jack. 

QiERCrs  NIGRA  of  autliors,  not  of  L. 

Kangi:. — I'roui  New  York  (Forbells  Lamliug  and  Tine  Island,  l-ong  Island)  through 
northern  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  southern  Michigan  (Ann  Arbor  and  Lansing)  to  south- 
eastern IS'ebraska,  central  Kansas,  and  Indian  Territory;  south  to  Florida  (Matanzaa 
Inlet  and  Tampa  Bay)  and  west  to  Texas  (Nueces  River). 

Names  in  use. — Black  Jack  (Pa.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  ]^.  C,  S.  C,  Ga., 
Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,  Iiid.,  Kans.,  Xebr.,  Mich.,  Minn., 
Iowa.,  S.  Dak.);  Jack  Oak  (N.  Y.,  W.  Va.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  Ohio,  III., 
Kans..  Nebr.);  Iron  Oak  (Tenn.);  Black  Oak  (Ark.,  Wis.);  Barren  Oak 
(Kans.,  Term.):  Barrens  Oak  (Fla.);  Scrub  Oak  (S.  C). 

Quercus  marilandica  x  velutina  Bush. 

Ra.\(;k. — Indian  Territory  (near  Sapula). 

Quercus  brittoni  Davis.  Britton  Oak. 

Rantje. — New  York  (Watchogue,  Staten  Island). 

Quercus  nigra  JAun.  "Water  Oak. 

Quercus  AciUATicA  Walt. 

Range. — Southern  Delaware  to  Florida  (Cape  Malabar  and  Tampa  Bay);  west  to 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  through  the  Gulf  States  to  Texas  (Colorado  River); 
through  Arkansas  and  eastern  border  of  Indian  Territory  to  southeastern  Missouri 
(Black  River),  middle  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky. 

i^AMES  IN  USE.— Water  Oak  (Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  IMiss.,  La., 
Tex.,  Ark..  Mo.);  Spotted  Oak  (Tex.,  Ala.);  Duck  Oak;  Possum  Oak; 
Pnnk  Oiik. 

Quercus  laurifolia  Michx.  Laurel  Oak. 

Raxck. — Coa.st  region  from  southeastern  Virginia  (Dismal  Swamp)  to  Florida 
(Mosfpiito  Inlet  and  Capo  Romano)  and  west  in  the  Gulf  region  to  Louisiana. 

]!f a:\ies  IN  USE.— Laurel  Oak  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla  );  Swamp  Laurel 
Oak  (Tenn.):  Darlington  Oak  (S.  C);  Willow  Oak  (Fla.,  S.  C);  Water 
Oak  (Ga.). 

Quercus  brevifolia  (Lam.)  Sargent.  Blue  Jack. 

Quercus  cinerka^IMIcIix. 

RANOlij. — From  North  tJaroliua  (in  a  maritime  belt  10  to .^0 miles  inland)  to  Florida 
%  (Ca]te  Malabar  and  Tease  Creek  across  the  peninsula);  west  on  Gulf  coast  to  Texas 
(Brazos  River  and  inland  as  far  as  Dallas). 

Names  in  use.— Upland  Willow  Oak  (N.  C,  Ala.,  Tex.);  Blue  Jack 
(N.  C.Fla.,  Tex.,  Ga.);  Sand  Jack  (Tex.);  Hij^h-jiround  Willow  Oak 
(S.  C);  Turkey  Oak  (S.  C,  Ga.);  Shin  Oak  (Tex.);  Oinnamou  Oak 
(Fla.). 

Quercus  imbricaria  Michx.  Shingle  Oak. 

Uant.h. — From  Pennsylvania  (Lehigh  County)  west  through  soutliern  Michigan 
(Washtenaw  County,  Kalamazoo  County),  and  Wisconsin  to  northern  Missouri  and 


59 

northeastern  Kansas;  south  to  the  District  of  Cohimbia  and  (in  the  AlleKheny 
Monntains)  to  northern  Georgia  an<l  Alabama,  to  mi<l(lle  Tennessee  and  northern 
Arkansas. 

Names  in  use.— Shingle  Oak  (Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  111., 
Kan.,  Iowa,  Nebr.);  Laurel  Oak  (Pa.,  Del.,  S.  C,  Ky.,  111.,  Nebr.);  Jack 
Oak  (111.);  Water  Oak  (N.  C). 

Quercus  imbricaria  x  palustris  Engelm 

Kaxge. — Missouri  (8  miles  west  of  8t.  Louis;  but  tree  since  destroyed). 
Quercus  tridentata  (de  C.)  Engelm.  Trident  Oak. 

Range. — Missouri  (near  St.  Louis — but  tree  nov  destroyed — and  near  Allentown) 
and  Michigan  (Washtenaw  County). 

Quercus  leana  Nutt.  Lea  Oak. 

Range. — Ohio  (near  Cincinnati) ;  District  of  Columbia  and  western  North  Carolina 
to  southern  Michigan,  central  and  northern  Illinois,  and  southeastern  Missouri. 
Range  imperfectly  known. 

Quercus  phellos  Linn.  Willo-w  Oak. 

Range. — From  New  York  (Tottenville,  Staten  Island)  to  northeastern  Florida — 
usually  in  the  low  maritime  plain,  and  through  the  Gulf  region  to  Texas  (Sabine 
River),  and  through  Arkansas  to  southeastern  Missouri,  central  Tennessee,  and 
southern  Kentucky. 

Names  in  use.— Willow  Oak  (R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa..  Del.,  Ala.,  N.  C,  S.  C, 
Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo.) ;  Peach  Oak  (N.  J.,  DeL,  Ohio);  Water 
Oak  (S.  C);  Swamp  Willow  Oak  (Tex.). 

Quercus  phellos  x  digitata  Small. 

Range. — North  Carolina  (Stanley  County). 

Quercus  phellos  x  pumila  Sadworth. 

Range. — New  Jersey  (Mays  Lauding). 

Quercus  heterophylla  Micbx.  f.  Bartram  Oak. 

Range. — Pennsylvania  (ne..;r  Philadelphia — but  tree  long  siuce  destroyed] ;  New 
Jersey  (near  Camden) ;  Delaware  (Wilmington) ;  New  York  (Staten  Island) ;  Virginia 
(near  Alexandria) ;  Districtof  Columbia;  western  North  Carolina  ;  Tennessee  (Coffee 
County);  Alabama  (near  Falkville) ;  Texas  (Houston). 

Names  in  use. — Bartram's  Oak  (Del.,  Ala.);  Burriers  Oak  (lit.). 
Quercus  subimbricaria  (de  C.)  Sudworth. 
Quercus  phellos  x  tinctoria  Gray. 
Quercus  phellos  x  nigra  Britt. 

Range. — New  Jersey  (between  Keyport  and  South  Amboy);  New  York  (Staten 
Island);  North  Carolina  (Yadkin  River);  South  Carolina  (near  Aiken).     Aa^  ..^^m'^ 

Quercus  densiflora  Hook.  &  Am.  '(California)  Tanbark  Oak.JUi»^f/^ 

Range. — Southern   Oregon  (Umpqua  River)   and  southward  through  California  (/ 

(coast  raufics  to  Santa  Inez  Mountains — east  of  Santa  Barbara,  and  western  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  Mariposa  County). 

Xames  in  use. — Tanbark  Oak  (Gal.);  Chestnut  Oak  (Cal.);  Cali- 
fornia Chestnut  Oak  (Oreg.);  Peach  Oak  (Oreg.);  Live  Oak  (Oreg.). 

Quercus  densiflora  echinoides  (R.  Br.  Cainpst.)  Saigent. 

Range — Southern  Oregon  (Canyon  Creek)  and  northern  California  (Mount  Shasta 
and  Sierra  Nevada). 


/ 


60 


,  j|T^lmus  crassifolia  Nutt.    ^-  A  -^^         Cedar  Elm. 

^"*^?*^  Range.— From  Mississippi  (Sunflower  River)  through  southeoi  Arkanajis  UJi'L^^ 
Texas  (from  coast  to  th»>  Pecos  River)  to  Mexico  (Nuevo  Leon).  ^.^IprxilPll^  \^  W-T jK^v. 
t  Names  in  use. — Cedar  Elm  (Tex.);  Red  Elm  (Tex.);  Basket  Elm      ^ 

^  Ulmus  pubescens  Walt.    -Z<X>ftO      ^A\    rhciZf  .      Slippery^Elm. 
vy>4  Ulmus  FULVA  Michx.  jStr^**-^       J4i^    V    \>^^  ^'^'-^-t. 

jh^        Rangk. — From  Lower  St.  Lawrenco  River  (Orleans  IslandjthTough  Ontario  to 
North  Dakota  au<l  eastern  Nebraska;   south  to  vpesterii  Florida,  central  Alabama, 
,nd  ^lississippi  and  Texas  (San  Antonio  River). 

Names  in  use. — Slippery  Elm  ( Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  II.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Pa.,  Dei.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Ga.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ky., 
Mo.,  Kaus.,  Nebr.,  Ohio,  111.,  lud.,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Iowa,  Miim.,  Out.);  Red 
Elm  (Yt.,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  Del.,  Pa.,  W.  Va.,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex., 
Ark.,  Ky,,  Mo.,  111.,  Kans..  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Ohio.  Out.,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Minn.); 
Red  wooded  Elm  (Tenu.);  liock  Elm  (Tenn.):  Orme  gras  (La.);  Moose 
^  Elm;  Oo-hoosk-ah  =  "It  slips"  (Indians,  N.  Y.).. 

jf    ^  Ulmus  americana  Linn.  White  Elm. 

JffJBtt.^  Rangk. — From  southern  Newfoundland  to  Lake  Superior  (north  shores)  and  to  the 
l^m  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  (here  np  the  Saskatchewan  River  to  latitude 
MK  54°  30") ;  south  to  Florida  (Cape  Canaveral  and  Pease  Creek) ;  west  to  Dakota  (Black 
iioSU^  ♦  Hills),  western  Nebraska,  western  Kansas,  Indian  Territory,  and  Texas  (Rio  Concho 
River). 

Names  in  use. — American  Elm  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y'.,  Del.,  Pa., 
N.  C,  Miss.,  Tex.,  111.,  Ohio,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Mich.,  Minn,,  Ont);  White 
Elm  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  L,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  N.,1.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va., 
N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Kans., 
Nebr,,  Oliio,  Ont.,  Iowa,  Mich.,  Minn.,  N.  Dak,,  S.  Dak.);  Water  Elm 
(Miss.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,  Iowa,  Mich,,  Ohio,,  Minn.,  Nebr.);  Elm 
(Mass.,  R,  I.,  Conn.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  N.  O.,  S,  C,  Iowa,  Wis.);  Orme  Maigre 
(La.);    Swamp  Elm;  Rock  Elm. 

\  AKIETY    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Ulmus  americana  pendula  Ait.  "Weeping  American  Elm. 

Ulmus  racemosa  Thomas.    fh*t£'  1/>H/      ^  ;  t^  Cork  Elm. 

0  liANtiE. — From  t^iiebcc  (eastern  townships)  through  Ontario,  and  south  throiijih 
northwestern  New  Hampshire  to  southern  Vermont;  westward  throui^h  northern 
New  York,  southern  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  (Lake  Mendota,  near  Madison^  to 
northeastern  Nebraska  (Meadville,  Keyapaha  County),  southeastern  Missouri,  ami 
middle  Tennessee. 

Names  in  use.— Cork  Elm  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R,  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J,,  Ark.,  Ky,, 
Mo.,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Ohio,  Iowa);  Rock  Elm  (R.  1.,  W.  Va.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111., 
Wis.,  Iowa,  Mich.,  Nebr.,  Ont.);  Hickory  Elm  (Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Iowa)- 


61 

White  Elm  (Ont);  Thomas  Elm  (Tenn.);  I^ortherii  Cork-barked  Elm 
(Teiin.);  Corkbark   Elm  (N.  Y.);  Northern  Cork   Elm  (Vt.);  Wahoo 
(Obio);  Chff  Ehn  (Wis.);  Corky  White  Elm. 
ITlmus  alata  Michx.  Wing  Elin. 

KAN(iK  — From  sontlunu  Virginia  to  western  Florida,  and  from  soiitberii  Illinois 
and  Indiana  through  western  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  to  the  Gulf,  and  west  through 
southern  Missouri,  Arkansas,  eastern  Indian  Territory,  and  Texas  (to  Trinity  River). 

Names  in  use.— Winj;ed  Elm  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ark.,  Tex.,  111.,  Ind.) 
Wahoo  (W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  La.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  Mo.):  Wahoo  Elm  (Mo.) 
Witch  Elm  (W.  Va.);  Elm  (W.  Va.);  Cork  Elm  (Fla.,  S.  C,  Tex.) 
Water  Elm  (Ala.);  Small-leaved  Elm  (X.  C);  Red  Elm  (Fla.,  Ark.) 
Whahoo  (S.  (1);  Corl^y  Elm  (Tex.):  Mountain  Elm  (Ark.). 

Planera  aquatica  (Walt.)  Gniel.  Planertree. 

Iyange. — From  North  Carolina  (Cape  Fear  River)  to  western  Florida,  and  west 
through  southern  Alabama  and  Mississippi  to  Texas  (Trinity  River);  northward 
through  western  Louisiana  and  Arkansas  to  southern  Missouri,  west  Tennessee 
(Brownsville),  central  Kentucky,  and  Illinois  (to  lower  Wabash  River). 

Names  in  use. — American  Planetree  (Ala.);  Planertree  (N.  C, 
S.C  ,Fla.,La.,Tex.,  Ark.,Tenn.);  Water  Elm  (Fla.);  Sycamore  (N.  C.;; 
Pleue  (La.). 

CELtiS'  Limi. 
Celtis  occidentalis  Linn.  Hackberry. 

Range. — From  St.  Lawrence  River  (St.  Helens  Island,  near  Montreal)  to  southern 
Ontario;  in  the  United  States  from  Massachusetts  (Massachusetts  Bay)  to  north- 
western Nebraska,  North  Dakota,  southern  Idaho  (Boise  City),  eastern  Washington 
and  Oregon  (Snake  River),  western  Washington  (Puget  Sound),  Nevada-  (East 
Knmboldt  Mountains),  New  Mexico,  and  soi.th  to  PTorida  (Biscayne  Bay  and  Cape 
Romano),  middle  Tennessee,  Missouri,  eastern  Kansas,  Indian  Territory,  and  eastern 
Texan. 

Names  in  use.— Hackberry  (N.  H.,  Vt,  R.  L,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Del.,  Pa., 
W  Ta.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ariz.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  III., 

•Dr.  J.  K.  Small  Las  recently  described  the  following  new  species,  specimens  of 
which  1  have  not  seen : 

Celtis  Georgiana  Small  (Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  vol.  24,  p.  439, 1897).  "A  low  species 
('diffuse  shrub')  related  to  C.  pumila,  from  which  it  may  be  distinguished  by  its 
smaller,  nearly  acute  leaves,  the  very  short  pedicels,  and  smaller  tan-colored 
drupes  "  North  central  Georgia  (Yellow  River  Valley,  near  McGuire's  mill  in 
Gwinnett  County,  and  in  vicinity  of  Stone  Mountain). 

Celiig  Helleri  Small  (1.  c).  A  tree  about  30  feet  high  and  3  feet  in  diameter,  with 
much  branched  and  wide-spreading  crown.  Bark  of  trunk  and  main  branches  with 
corky  warts.  The  leaves  are  described  as  ''rather  firm,  the  l)lades  ovate  to  oblong, 
4  to  7  cm.  long,  obtuse  or  acute,  crenate-serrate,  *  '  "  rounded  or  subcordate  at 
tLe  base,  '  *  '  scabrous  pubescent  above,  pale  and  tomentose  beneath." 
Between  San  Antonio  an<l  San  Antonio  River,  Texas.  This  tree  appears  to  be  very 
closely  related  to  Celtis  occidentalin  reticulata 

^Shrubby  variety,  C.  occidentalis  pit mila  Gr.,  common  from  South  Atlantic  States 
to  Missouri,  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Nevada. 


62 

Ind.,  Wis.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  S.  Dak.,  Ohio,  Out.), 
Supiiberry  (N.  Y.,  Pa.,  TJel.,  N.  C,  s!  C,  Minn.);  Nettle-tree  (K.  I., 
Mass.,  Del.,  Mich.);  American  Nettle  tree  (Tenn.);  Hoop  Ash  (Vt.); 
One-berry  (11.  1.);  Hack-tree  (Minn.);  Juniper- tree  (N.  J.);  Bastard 
Elm  (N.  J.). 
Celtis  occidentalis  reticulata  (Torr.)  Sargent.  Palo  Blanco. 

Kangk. — From  eastern  Texas  (Dallas)  to  the  Rio  Grande  River  ami  throuuh  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona  to  southern  Utali,  Nevada,  California  (western  rim  of  Colorado 
Desert) ;  Lower  California  (.San  Julio  Canyon  and  Cerros  Island). 

Names  in  use.— Hackberry  (Tex.);  Palo  Blanco  (Tex.). 
Celtis  mississippiensis  Bosc.  Sugarberry. 

Rangk. — From  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois  through  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  to 
Florida  ( Biscay ne  Bay),  and  through  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Texas  to  Mexico 
(Nuevo  Leon). 

Names  in  use. — Sugarberry  (Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.):  Connu  (La.);  Bois 
inconnu  (La.);  HackberryVTitsnn.),  *#_  if  /   i  \ 

Range. — From  Avestern  Massachusetts  and  New  York  (Long  Island)  to  southern 
Ontario,  central  ^lichigan,  southeastern  Nebraska,  eastern  Kansas;  south  to  Florida 
(Biscayno  Bay  and  Cape  Romano)  and  Texaff  (Colorado  River). 

Names  in  use.— Red  Mulberry  (Me.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Ga.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Ky., 
Mo.,Ohio,  Mich..  111.,  Ind.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,Ont.);  Mulberry  (Pa.,N.  C.,S.C., 
Fla.,  Ala.,  Ark.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  Mo..  Ohio,  111.,  Iowa,  Nebr.) ;  Black  Mulberry 
(N.  J.,  Pa.,  W.  Va.):  Virginia  Mulberry- tree  (Tenn.);  Murier  Sauvage 
(La.). 
Morus  celtidifolia  H.  B.  K.  Mexican  Mulberry. 

Range. — From  Texas  (south  from  the  Colorado  River  and  mountains  of  western 
part  of  the  State)  and  southern  New  Mexico  to  Ai'izona  (Santa  Rita  Mountirtns) ; 
Mexico  (from  Nuevo  Leon  to  Chihuahua  and  through  southern  Mexico)  to  Central 
America  and  Peru. 

Name  in  use. — Mexican  ^Mulberry  (Tex.). 

Morus  alba  Linn.  White  Mulberry. 

Rangk. — China;  hut  wi<h-ly  cultivated  and  naturalized  in  the  I'liifcd  States. 

VAKIKTIES    IHSTINGIISHED   IN    CULTIVATION. 

Morus  albatatarica  (Linn.)  Loud.  Russian  Mulberry. 

Morus  alba  rosea  Loud. 

Morus  alba  macrophylla  (Moretti)  Loud.  Largeleaf  Mulberry. 

Morus  alba  vulgaris  tokwa  (Sieb.)  Bur. 

Morus  alba  pyramidalis  Seringe. 

Morus  alba  peudula  (Dipp.)  Sudw. 

Morus  alba  constantinopolitana  (Poir.)  Loud. 

Morus  alba  multicaulis  (Parr.)  Loud. 

Morus  alba  venosa  Delile. 


VVxy>^ 


Broussonetia  papyrifera  Vent 


Paper  Mulberry. 


Kaxge. — Japan.     Cultivated  and  naturalized  in  the  Southern  S 


Toxylon  pomiferum  Raf.     '"'^ 


Maclura  aurantiaca  :N^utt. 

Range. — From  southern  Arkansas  (south  of  Arkansas  River)  throujjjh  southeast- 
ern Indian  Territory  and  southern  Texas  (to  about  latitude  35*^56').  Widely  dis- 
tributed elsewhere  by  cultivation. 

Names  in  use. — Osage  Orange  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del., 
Va.,  W.  Va.,  K  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,Ky.,  Mo.,  Ohio.,  111., 
Kans.,Nebr., Iowa, Mich.);  BoisD'Aic  (La.,Tex.,Mo.);  Bodock(Kaiis.); 
]Mock  Orange  (La.);  Bow- wood  (Ala.);  Osage  Apple-tree  (Tenn.);  Yel- 
low-wood (Tenu.);  Hedge  (HI.);  Hedge-plant  (Iowa,  Nebr.);  Osage 
(Iowa). 

VARIETY    DISTINGUISHED   IN   CULTIVATION. 

Toxylon  pomiferum  inerme  Andre.  ^       Thornless  Osage  Orange. 

Ficus  aurea  Nutt.  f  G-olden  Fig. 

Range. — Southern  Florida  (shores  and  islands  from  Indian  River  on  the  east  coast, 
and  Tampa  Bay  on  the  west  coast  to  the  southern  keys') ;  Bahama  Islands. 

i^AMES  IN  USE. — Wild  Fig  (Fla.);  India-Rubber-tree   (Fla.);  Wild 
Rubber-tree  (Fla.).;  Rubber-tree  (Fla.). 
Ficus  populnea  Willd.  Poplarleaf  Fig. 

FiCUS  PEDUNCULATA  Xutt. 
Range. — Florida  (Biscayne    Bay  region   and  Key   Largo,  I'mbrella   Key,  Boca 
Checa  Key,  Pumpkin  Key,  and  Key  West) ;  West  Indies. 

Names  in  use. — Wild  Fig  (Fla.);  India-Rubber-tree  (Fla.). 


Family  POLYGON_A.CE^E. 

COCCOLOBIS  Browne. 

Coccolobis  uvifera  (Linn.)  Sargent.  Sea  Grape. 

Range. — Southern  Florida  (shores  from  Mosquito  Inlet  on  the  eiist  eoast  to  the 
southern  keys,  and  from  Tampa  Bay  on  the  west  coast  to  Cape  Sable);  Bermuda  and 
Bahama  Islands,  West  Indies,  and  in  South  America  from  Colombia  to  Brazil. 

Kames  in  use. — Sea  Grape  (Fla.);  Seaside  Plum. 
Coccolobis  laurifolia  (Jacq.)  Sargent.  Pigeon  Plum. 

CoccoLOBA  floridana  Meisn. 

Range.— Southern  Florida  (east  coast  from  Cape  Canaveral  to  the  southern  keys, 
and  on  the  west  coast  from  Cape  Romano  to  CapeSable;  Bahamas,  West  Indies,  and 
Venezuela. 

Name  in  use. — Pigeon  Plum  (Fla.) 


64 
Family  nSTYOT^GI^^CE^E. 

PISONIA  Liiiii. 
Pisonia  obtusata  Jacq.  BloUy 

Range. — Sontbern  Florida  (shores  on  the  east  coast  from  Cape  Canaveral  to  the 
southern  islands;  especially  large  on  Elliotts  and  Old  Rhodes  Key);  West  Indies  to 
Brazil. 

Names  in  use. — Pigeon  wood  (Fla,);  Beef  wood  (Fla.);  Cork-wood 
(Ela.);  Pork- wood  (Fla.);  Bklly  (Fla.).  '    i^ 

^^^i-^^  V  3VIAGNOI^IA  linn,     ''^'^'^tjwj 

Magnolia  fcetida  (Linn.)  Saro€fiif/  (Evergreen)  Magnolia. 

^L|j;jJ|>jJUE;v\jVIagnolia  aRANDiFLORA  Linn. 

X  Range. — Coast  region  North  Carolina  (south  of  Cape  Fear  River )  to  Florida  (Mos- 
quito Inlet  and  Tarapa  Bay)  and  westward  in  the  Gulf  coast  region  to  Texas  (Brazos 
River) ;  through  western  Louisiana  to  southern  Arkansas. 

I^AMES  IN  USE. — Magnolia  (X.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex., 
Ky.);  Big  Laurel  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Miss.,  La.);  Bull  Bay  (Ala.,  Ga.,  Miss.); 
Great  Laurel  j\Iagnolia(Ala.);  Laurel-leaved  Magnolia;  Large-flowered 
Evergreen  Magnolia;  Bat-tree;  Laurel  Bay;  Laurel  (S.  C.). 

VAKIETIES   DISTINGUISHED   IN   CULTIVATION. 

Magnolia  foetida  lanceolota  (Ait.)  Sudw.  .  Exmouth  Magnolia. 

Magnolia  fcEtida  praecox  (Loud.)  Sarg.  \ 

Magnolia  fcetida  angustifolia  (Loud.)  Sarg. 
Magnolia  foetida  ferruginea  (Sims)  ^^^w.  ^^«^ 

Magnolia  glauca  Linn.      \%J^u^i)Jt}''h4^   ^*^^'\       Sweet  Magnolia. 

Range. — Massachusetts  (Gloucester,  Kssejc  (f|i/uty) ;  Long  Island  (Turtle  Pond, 
Suffolk  County);  from  New  Jersey  to  Florida  (Biscayne  Bay  on  the  east  coast,  and 
to  Tampa  Bay  on  the  west  coast) ;  west  in  the  Gulf  region  to  Texas  (Triuity  River). 

Names  in  use.— Sweet  Bay  (Mass.,  K.  I,,  Pa.,  N.  J.,  N.  C,,  S.  C, 
Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ark.,  Mo.);  White  Bay  (N.  C,  S.  C.,  Ala.,  Fla., 
Miss.,  La.);  Swamp  Laurel  (j\Iass.,N.  C,  Ga.,  Miss.);  Swamp  Sassafras 
(Del.,  Pa.,  Tenn.);  Swamp  Magnolia  (N.  J.,  Pa.,  Tenn.);  Magnolia 
(K  J.,  Del.,  Pa.);  White  laurel  (Del.,  iljss.,  L^);   Beavar-tree  (Del., 


S.  C.,  Miss.);  Bay  (S.  C.).  -Ji^.  »*0 


,|Ijss.,  L^);   Beav|r-tr 


varieties  distinguished  in  cultivation. 

Magnolia  glauca  longifolia  Ait. 

Magnolia  glauca  major  Sims.  Thomson  Magnolia. 

^^.JjjJTMagnolia  acuminata  Linn.       ^./rA^f^  .d/WV-^l^  Cucumber-tree. 

f),^/ffO  ^  Range. — Froui  western  New  York  through  soutnern  Ontario  to  southern  Illinois 
and  south  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains  to  southern  Alabama  (Stockton)  and  north- 
eastern Mississippi  (Meridian) ;  central  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  (near  Nashville  and 
eastern  part  of  State);  northeastern,  southern,  and  southwestern  Arkansas. 

Names  in  use.— Cucumber-tree  (R.  L,  Mass.,  N.Y.,  Pa.,  D.C.  (cult.), 
^K.  C.^.  C.,  Ala.,  Miss^La.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  W.  Va.,  Ohio,  Ind.  aIU.);  Moun- 

ftWk  <utJL  4*^.  >AA;^^^-yt4MwMvc 


Tm>xella 


■  -tree. 


tain  Masrnolia  (Miss.,  Ky.);  Cucumber  (W.  Va.);Blaqki 
Maiiiiolia  (Ark.);  Pointed-leaved  Magnolia  (lit.).    VVff^^  - 

Magnolia  acuminata  cordata  (Michx.)  Loud.       '^'^/^f^Ji^-^\jOJUU4    « 

Yello"w-flo"wered  Cucumber-tiree. 

Range. — Occasional  in  the  Alleghenies,  but  most  i)erfect  in  ciiltivatimi. 

Names  in  use. — Cucumber  tree  (Va.,  I^.  C.,.Miss.,  La.);  Yellow- 
tiowered  Magnolia  (Ala.,  La.);  Yollow-tiowered  Cucumber-tree  (Ala.); 
Yellow  Cucumber-tree  (Ala.);  Heart-leaved  Cucunil»er-tree  (N.  C.). 

Magnolia  macrophylla  Michx.  Largeleaf  Umbrella. 

RaN(,e. —  From  North  Carolina  (southern  Alleg^liony  Mount  lins)  to  southeastern 
Kentucky,  to  middle  and  western  Florida  and  southern  Alah.ima;  tlirough  northern 
Mississippi  to  Louisiana  (Pearl  River);  central  Arkansas  (Garland,  Montgomery, 
Hot  Springs,  and  Sebastian  counties). 

Names  in  use. — Large-leaved   Cucumber-tree   (Ala..    Miss.,    La.); 
Great-leaved  Magnolia  (X.  C,  Miss.,  La.):  Large  leaved  Umlnella-tree 
(N.  C.  Tenn.);  Cucumber  (Ky.);    Cucumber-tree  (Fla.);    Laug-leaved 
M.gnolia  (S.  0.).  ^4i^,^,  ^j  »>*  JJH^JaU  ^iA-.^J^ 
Magnolia  tripetala  Liifn.  "jU^^wiC^* 
Magnolia  umbrella  Desrouss. 

Range. — From  southern  Pennsylvania  (throughouFtneAlfegheny  Mountains  and 
to  the  coast)  to  central  Alabama;  west  to  central  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  and 
northeastern  Mississippi ;  central  and  southwestern  Arkansas. 

Names  in  u.se. — Umbrella  tree  (Pa..  W.  Va.,  X.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Miss^ 
La.);  Cucumber  (Ky.);  Magnolia  (W^V^):  W^^f^  Q^jJi^^tJ 
Magnolia  fraseri  ^Valt.    ^hAM/AJK  "W»«S?  -^T^aserUiAbrell^- 

Range. — Southwestern  Virginia  (nrountains)  to  Florida  (Chattahoochee  River) 
and  west  thcough  eastern  ^'enuessee^ud  Alabam^  to  northern  Mississippi  (Pearl 
River).  Jj^^JJt.'i^^f^^      ^^yUM  -^X^y^^^ ' 

Names  in  use. — Long-leaved   Cucumber-tree  (N.  C,  S.  C);    Ear- 

-leaved  Umbrella-tree  (N.  C,  S,  C,  Miss.);  Ear-leaved  Cucumber-tree 

(N.  C,  Fla.);  Indian  Physic  (N.  C,  Tenn.);  Indian  Bitters  (N.  C); 

Cucumber  (Ky.);   North  Carolina  Bay-tree  (W.  Va.);  Cucumber-tree 

(Fla.);  Water  Lily-tree;  Mountain  Magnolia;   SVliahoo. 

Liriodendron  tulipifera  Linn.  fj    Tulip-tree. 

Range. — From  Rhode  Island  to  southwestern  Vermont  and  west  to  Lake  Michi- 
gan (through  southern  Michigan  as  far  north  as  the  Grand  River) ;  south  to  Florida, 
southern  Alabama,  and  Mississippi:  west  of  Mississippi  River  in  southeastern  Mis- 
souri and  adjacent  Arkansas. 

Names  in  use.— Tulip-tree  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Del.,  Pa.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  D.  C,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  Obio,  Ind„ 
111.,  Out.) ;  White-wood  ( Vt.,  Mass.,  li.  1.,  Couu.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  DeL,  S.  C, 
Ky.,  Ohio,  111.,  Mich.,  Out.);  Yellow  Poplar  (N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va., 
W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  Mo.);  Tulip  Poplar 
(Del.,  Pa.,  S.  C,  111.);  Poplar -(K.  I.,  Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Ohio); 
White  Poplar  (Pa.,  Ky.,  lud.);  Blue  Poplar  (DeL,  W.  Va.);  Hickory    X-  ' 


H 


f 


LIRIODENDRON  Linn. 


1       V**'*^ 


6o 

Poplar  (Va.,  W.  Va.,  KC);  Popple  (R.  I.);  Cucumber-tree  (K  Y.); 
Canoe- wood  (Teim.);  Old-Wife's  Shirt-tree  (Tenii.);  Ko-yen-ta-ka  ah- 
ta='' White-tree"  (Ouaudaga  ludiaus,  a!^^.  Y.);  Basswood  (Ohio). 

VARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Liriodendron  tulipifera  obtusiloba  Michx. 

Liriodendron  tvilipifera  pyramidalis  Dipp.  Pyramidal  Tulip-tree. 

Liriodendron  tulipifera  peuache  Ehv.  As  13.  Variegated  Tulip-tree. 

Liriodendron  tulipifera  aureo-naaculata  (Arb.  Kew.)  Sudw. 


Family    j^lS'lSlOlSi  J^Cl^^^. 

ASIMINA  Adaiis.         h    I)  ()^,  ^   rfc^. 
Asimina  triloba  (Linn.)  Dunal.    r  — '--^^'''-^'^^  Papaw. 

Eaxgk. — From  Avestern  New  York  to  the  north  shores  of  Lake  Huron:  from  east- 
ern and  central  Pennsylvania  throujjjh  southern  Michigan,  eastern  Kansas;  south  to 
iddlc  Florida  and  Texas  (to  the  Sabine  River).  * 

^AiviES  IN  USE.— Papaw  (R.  I.,  Del.,  N.  Y.,  X.  J.,  D.  C,  Va.,  W.  Va., 
)  )J5^-  C.,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ky.,  Ohio,  111.,  Ind.,  Mo.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Nebr.) ; 
Custard  Ai)ple  (Out.,  Del.,  Pa.,  Ohio,  S.  C,  Miss.) ;  Banana  (Ark.) ;  False 
Banana  (III.);  Jasmine  (La.);  Jasiuinier  (La.);  Fetid  iShrub  (N.  C). 

ANNONA  Linn. 
Annona  glabra  Linn.  Pond  Apple. 

Eange. — Southern  Florida  (shores  on  the  east  coast  from  Biscayne  Bay  to  Cape 
Malabar,  and  on  the  west  coast  from  Pease  Creek  to  Caloosa  River) ;  Bahama,  iSau 
Domingo,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  Croix  islands. 

Names  in  use. — Pond  Apple  (Fla.);  Custard  Apple  (Fla.). 

ly  L^Iip^CiiL^.        d     ^ 

PERSEA  Gaertn  f  ,       "  *VT-c/  - 

-'Vy4i/-'v/<(Rp<i  Bay. 

VTJJJ^     Range. — Coast  region  from  \  irginia  to  Florida  (Biscj^yneliay  and  Cape  Romano) 
■^        and  the  Gulf  region  to  Texas  (Brazos  River);   northward  through   Louisiana  to 
A  tii^"iithern  Arkansas. 

Na:vies  in  use.— Red  Bay  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Flk,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.); 
Bay  Galls  (Tenn.);  Laurel-tree  (La.);  Laurier  Petit  Magnolia  (La.); 
Florida  Mahogany  (Fla.);  Sweet  Bay  (Fla.);  False  Mahogany  (lit.) 

Persea  pubescens  (Pursh)  Sargent.  Swamp  Bay. 

Persea  cabolinensis  var.  palustris  Chapm. 

Range. — South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast  region  from  North  Carolina  to  Mississippi. 

Names  in  use. — Swamp  Red-Bay  (Fla.);  Bay  (Ga.). 


67 

OCOTEA  Aublet. 

Ocotea  catesbyana  (Michx.)  Sarg^eiit.  Lancewood 

Necta^dka  willdenoviana  Meisner. 

Range. — Southern  Florida  (shores  and  ishiuds  on  the  east  coast  south  of  Capo 
Canaveral,  and  on  the  Avest  coast  south  of  Cape  Romano). 

iSTA^iES  IN  USE. — Lancewood  (Fla.);  Sweetwood  (Jamaica);  Cigua 
(Cuba);  Avispiilo  (Puerto  Rico);  Canela  (Puerto  Kico). 

SASSAFRAS  Nees  «.^  l'A)e|m.-      q       ^  ^         I      -i^    f 

Sassafras  sassafras  (Liuii.)  Karst.  I  Sas|afraSo. 

Sassafras  OFFICINALE  Nees&  Eberm.       —^-2         J}     ^-^(^^XU,  ' 

Range. — From  eastern  Massachusetts  through  southern  Vermont,  southern  Ontario,  >A  kt^^ 
and  central  Michigan,  southeastern  Iowa,  eastern  Kansas,  and  Indian  Territory^  ^^VhEmJ 
south  to  central  Florida  and  Texas  (Brazos  River). 

Names  in  use. — Sassafras  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  Coun.,  E.  I.,  N.  Y., 
K.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Md.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  K  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex., 
Ark.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Kans.,  IS^ebr.,  Mich.,  Ohio,  Out.);  Saxifraxr)  1,5^^ 
(Fla.);    Saxifrax-tree   (Tenn.);  Sctssafac    (W.    Va.);   Sassafrac    (Del):  V  * 
Gumbo  file  (La.,  Xegro  dialect);  Wah-eh-nah-k|is^"Smelliug. stiak'' 
(Onoiyfa^^a^^g^Y^j^^^^^     O^y^'Orl.  ^AfM. 

UMBELLULARIA  Nutt.    M}41    ^APMt^jf^J^ 

Umbellularia  californica  (Hook.  &  Arn.)  Nutt.     California  LaureL^ 

Range. — From  Oregon  (Rogue  River)  throutrh  Calilornia  (coast  ranges  and 
western  slopes  of  Sierra  Nevada  to  southern  slopes  of  San  Bernardino  Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Califoruia  Laurel  (Cal.,  Nev.);  jMountaiu  Laurel 
(Cal.,  Nev.);  California  Bay-tree  (Cal.,  Nev.);  Myrtle-tree  (Oreg.); 
Cajeput  (Oreg.);  California  Olive  (Oreg.);  Myrtle  (Oreg.);  Spice-tree 
(Xev.,  Oreg.);  Laurel  (Cal.):  Bay-trey^  (pal.);  ^reydapliiie  (Ca^.)^  Qali| 
fornian  Sassafras.  I L  A  Z. 

I         Family  C^PF^^RIDA^CE^E. 
I  CAPPARIS  Linn. 

Capparis  jamaicensis  Jacq.  Florida  Caper. 

Range. — Southern  I'lorida  (coast  from  Cape  Canaveral  to  the  southern  keys). 

Name  in  use. — Caper-tree  (Fla.). 

Family  SA.XIFKA.GA.CE^E» 

LYONOTHAMNUS  Gray. 

Lyonothamnus  floribundus  Gray.  Santa  Cruz  Ironwood. 

Range. — Santa  Catalina  and  Santa  Cruz  islands  off  the  southern  coast  of  Cali- 
fornia. 


■43!&t^<^?^ 


B8 


Family  H^IVC^ 
^  A  fiAMA.MELI 

Hamamelis  virginiana  Linn 

IvAXciK. — From  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  to  southern  Ontario,  Wisconsin,  an<l  eastern  Nebr.iska ;  south  to  northern 
Florida  and  eastern  Texaa. 

Names  in  use. — Witch  Hazel  (Me.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y., 
N.  J.,  Del.,  Pa.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La., 
Tex.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  III.,  Wis.,  Iowa,  Ohio,  Mich.,  Xebr.);  Oe-eh-nah-kwe- 
ha-he  =  " Spotted  stick''  (Onondaga  Indians,  N^.  Y.);  Winter  Bloom, 
Snapping  Hazel,  Spotted  Alder  (lit.  of  domestic  medicine). 

CCuAiJ^AJt.  V-«|-^-*«^      LIQUIDAMB AR  Linn.    i-tOA>HJ  S  w^  < 

Liquidambar  styraciSaaiCmnT^^  ^T^*^^     (Red,  or)  Sweet  Gum. 

Rangk. — From  Connecticut  (Fairtield  County)  to  southeastern  Missouri  and 
Arkansas;  south  to  Florida  (Cape  Canaveral  and  Tampa  Bay)  and  Texas  (Trinity 
Eiver). 

Names  in  use. — Sweet  Gum  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del., 
Va.,  W,  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Ky., 
Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Ohio);  Liquidamber  (K.  L,  N.  Y.,  Del.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  La., 
Tex.,  Ohio,  111.);  Red  Gum  (Va.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  La.);  Gum  (Va.); 
Gum-tree  (S.  C,  La.);  Alligator- wood  (N.  J.);  Bilsted  (N.  J.);  Star- 
leaved  Gum;  Satin  Walnut  (lumber  markets). 


Platanus  occidentalis  Liuii. 


Sycamore. 

Raxgk. — Southeastern  New  linmpshire  au<l  southern  Maine  to  northern  Vermont 
and  I>ake  Ontario  (Don  River,  near  north  shores  of  the  lake):  west  to  eastern 
Nebraska  and  Kansas,  and  south  to  northern  Florida,  central  Alabama  and  Missis- 
sippi, and  Texas  (Brazos  River  and  thence  south  to  Devils  River). 

'    Na:mes  in  use. — Sycamore  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  Conn.,  K.  I.,  N.  Y., 
IgPa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex., 
?^k.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Iowa,  Kan.,  Nebr.,  Mich.,  Wis..  Ohio.  Out.); 
Button  wood  (Vt,  N.  H.,  R.  I.,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  S.  C,  Ala., 
Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,  Nebr.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  Ohio,  Out.);   But- 
tonball-tree  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,N.  J.,  Pa..  Del.,  Miss.,  La.,  Mo., 
111.,  Iowa,  Mich.,  Nebr.,  Ohio):    Buttonball  (R.  I..  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Fla.); 
Plane-tree  (R.  I.,  Del.,  S.  C,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Iowa);  Water  Beech  (Del.); 
Matane  (La.);   Cotouier  (La.);   Bois  puant  (La.);    Oo-da-te-cha-wun- 
nes  =  "Big  stockings"  (Indians,  N.  Y.). 

Platanus  racemosa  Nutt.  California  Sycamore. 

Range. — California  (from  the  lower  Sacramento  River  throu<'h  interior  valleys 
.»nd  coast  ranges)  to  Lower  California  (San  Pedro  Martir  Mountain). 

Names  in  use. — Sycamore  (Cal.);  Button  wood;  Buttonball- tree 
X^al.);  |ButtonbaM  (Cal.)  a 


Platanus  ■wrignxii  Wats.'X  ^^*OiO  ^vv"    ^j^l^  Arizona  Sycamore. 

Range. — Southwestern  New  Mexico  and  souThern  Arizona;  Mexico  (Sonora. 

Names  in  use. — Sycamore  (Ariz.):  Arizona  Sycamore  (Cal.). 

Family   :R0SA.CE^E. 
VAUQUELINIA  Correa  ex  H.  B.  K. 

Vauquelinia  califomica  (Torr.)  Sargent.  Vauquelinia, 

Yauquelinia  torreyi  Wats. 

Range. — Southern  Arizona  (nioniitains ;  arl>ores<ent  on  Santa  Catalina  Mountains) 
and  Mexico  (Sonora)  to  Lower  ("alit'ornia. 

^  CERCOCARPUS  H.  B.  K. 
CercocarpuS' ledudlius  ]^utt.  Mountain  Mahogany. 

Range. — From  western  Wyoming  to  Montana  (western  slopes  Rocky  Mountains), 
Idaho  (Cceur  d'Aleue  Mountains).  Oregon  (eastern  Blue  Mountains),  and  southward 
(through  Wasatch  Movmtains  and  ranges  of  the  Great  Basin)  to  California  (easteru 
slopes  Sierra  Nevada  and  northern  slopes  of  San  Bernardino  Mountains),  and  ta 
northern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 

Name  in  use. — Mountain  Mahogany  (Cal.,  N.  Mex.,  Utah,  Idaho^ 
Mont). 
Cercocarpus  parvifolius  Nutt.  Valley  Mahogany. 

Range. — t  rom  western  Nebraska  to  Oregon  (Siskiyou  Mountains),  south  to  west- 
ern Texas  and  northern  Mexico;  California  (west  of  Sierra  Nevada  and  south  to 
San  Jacinto  mountains;  Santa  Cruz  Islands) ;  Lower  California  (mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Mountain  Mahogany  (Cal.,  N.  Mex.,  Utah,  Idaho»       y 
Colo.);  Valley  Mahogany  (Cal.);  Feather  tree  (Cal.). 
Cercocarpus  parvifolius  betuloides  (Nutt)  Sargent. 

Birchleaf  Mahogany. 

Range. — California  (coast  ranges). 

Cercocarpus  parvifolius  breviflorus  (Gr.)  Jones. 

Short-flower  Mahogany.        ^""^ 

Range. — Southern  boundary  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  California. 

Cercocarpus  parvifolius  paucidentatus  Wats. 

Entireleaf  Mahogany- 

Range. — Northern. New  Mexico  and  southern  Arizona. 

PYRUS  Linn. 
Pyrus  coronaria  Linn.  S"weet  Crab. 

Range.— Canada  (from  Humber  River  west  on  shores  of  Lake  Erie)  and  south 
through  western  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  to  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  on 
the  Allegheny  Mountains  to  central  Alabama;  west  to  southern  Minnesota,  eastern 
Nebraska,  eastern  Kansas,  Indian  Territory,  northern  Louisiana,  and  eastern  Texas.  \, 

Names  in  use.— American  Crab  (R.  I.,  N.  J.,  Del.,  Pa.,  xVla.,  Miss., 
La.,  III.,  Ohio,  Ont.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Mich.,  Minn.);  Sweet-scented  Crab 
(Mass.,  Del.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Miss.,  111.,  Ohio,  Iowa) ;  Crab  Apple  (S.  C.,. 
La.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ohio,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Nebr.);  Wild  Crab  (N.  Y.,  111., 
Ind.,  Wis.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Minn.,  Mo.,  Ark.j;  Crab  (W.  Va.,  N.  C,  Ga., 
Miss.,  Wis.);  American  Crab  Apple  (Nebr.);  Fragrant  Crab. 


70 
Pynis  ioensis  (Wood)  Bailey.  Iowa  Crab. 

Kangk. — Wisconsin.  Illinois,  Iowa,  iind  Kansas.     Range  imperfectly  understood. 

:Pyrus  soulardi  Bailey.  Soulard  Apple. 

Kan(;e. — Minnesota  to  Texas.     Less  common  in  nature  than  in  cultivation. 

Pyrus  malus  Liim.  Wild  Apple. 

Ran(;k. — Europe.  Widely  naturalized  in  the  United  States  and  running  wild  in 
many  localities. 

Pyrus  angustifolia  Ait.  Narrowleaf  Crab. 

Kaxgk. — From  Pennsylvania  (Allegheny  County),  New  .Jersey  (Cape  May  County), 
And  southern  Delaware  southward  (in  coast  region)  to  western  Florida  (Chattahoo- 
chee River);  west  through  the  Gulf  States  to  Louisiana  (Red  River),  and  north  to 
middle  (Bonair,  Dickson  County)  an<l  eastern  Tennessee. 

Kames  in  use. — Southern  Crab  Apple  (Del.,  N.  C,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.); 
American  Crab  Apple  (K.  I.,  N.  J.,  Miss.);   Narrowleaf  Crab  (Ala.); 
€rab  Apple  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.);  Wild  Crab  Apple;  Narrowleaved  Crab 
Apple  (N.  C);  Narrowleaved  Crab  (S.  C);  Crabtree  (Va.,  Fla.). 
Pyrus  rivularis  Dougl.  Oregon  Crab. 

Range. — From  the  Aleutian  Islands  south  along  the  coast  and  islands  of  Alaska 
and  British  Columbia  through  western  Washington  and  Oregon  to  California 
(Sonoma  and  Plumas  counties). 

Names  in  use. — Oregon  Crab  Apple  (Ca^,  Wash.,  Oreg.);  Crab  or 
Wild  Apple, 
Pyrus  americana  (Marsh.)  de  C.  Mountain  Ash 

Range. — From  Newfoundland  to  Manitoba,  and  south  through  Quebec  and 
Ontario,  Great  Lake  region,  and  high  elevations  in  northeastern  United  States  to 
eastern  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina. 

Names  in  use.— Mountain  Ash  ( Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  E.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Pa.,  Ya.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  Ky.,  Mich.,  Ont.):  American   Mountain   Ash 
(Pa.);  Mountain  Sumach  (N.  C,  S.  C);  Wine-tree  (N.  C);  Roundwood 
(Me.);  Life  of  Man  (N.  Y.);  Rowan-berry;  "Peruve"  (mts.,  Tenn.). 
Pyrus  americana  microcarpa  (Pursh)  Torr.  &  Gr. 

Smallfruit  Mountain  Ash. 

Range. — Allegheny  Mountains. 

Pyrus  sambucifolia  Cham.  &  Schl.  Elderleaf  Mountain  Ash. 

Ran(;e. — Southern  ( Jreenland  to  Labrador  and  northern  New  England  (mountains) ; 
westward  on  the  northern  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  to  Little  Slave  Lake,  through 
the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Alaska  (Kamchatka  and  northeastern  Asi:i.  Kuril  Islands 
to  Japan);  south  (in  mountains)  to  New  Mexico  and  central  California  (Yosemite 
Valley). 

Names  IN  USE. — Mountain  Ash  (Vt.,  Ont.);  Elder- leaved  Mountain 
Ash. 

AMELANCHIER  Medic. 

Amelanchier  canadensis  (Linn.)  Medic.  Serviceberry. 

Range. — From  Newfoundland  southward  to  northern  Florida,  and  west  along  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  to  Minnesota,  eastern  Nebraska,  eastern  Kansas, 
Louisiana,  and  southern  Arkansas. 

Names  in  use. — June-berry  (Mass.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Del.,  111.,  Kans., 
S.  Dak.);  Shad  Bush  (Mass.,  R.  L,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Del.,  S.  C);  Service- 


71 

berry  (Del.,  111.,  Ark.,  Fla.,  S.  Dak.);  Service-tree  (Pa.,  Del.);  May 

Cherry  (Pa.,  N.  0.);  Indian  Cherry  (Pa.);  Wild  Indian  Pear  (New- 

fonndland);   Currant  tree   (Fla.,  Ala.);    Shad-berry  (Fla.);    "Savice" 

(Tenn.). 

Amelanchier  canadensis  obovalis  (Michx.)  B.  S.  P. 

Longleaf  Service-tree. 

Range. — Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Quebec,  Ontario,  ;iu(l  nortli westward  to 
the  Mackenzie  River  (latitude  65°) ;  south  to  Yirgini:i,  and  west  to  Minnesota  and 
Missouri;  South  Cmolina  (coast  rej^ion)  to  Alabama  (Mobile  Bay). 

Amelanchier  canadensis  spicata  (Lam.)  Sargent. 

Amelanchier  alnifolia  Nutt.  Western  Serviceberry. 

Range. — From  Alaska  (Yukon  River,  latitude  62°  45)  to  California  (southern 
boundary);  eastward  through  British  Columbia,  Saskatchewan,  and  Manitoba  to 
Lake  Superior  (western  shores),  northern  Michigan,  Nebraska,  Colorado,  and  New 
Mexico  (Rocky  Mountains). 

Xames  in  ttse. — Pigeon-berry  (So.  Oreg.);  Serviceberry;  Western 
Serviceberry;  "Sarvice"  (Wyo.). 


^^J:^$l'm''^4inl4^  ^yviAtt  -- 


Crataegus  douglasii  Lindl.  r  Black  Haw. 

Range.  —From  British  Columbia  (Parsnip  River)  through  Washington  and  Oregon 
to  California  (Pitt  River),  and  through  Idaho  and  Montana  (Flathead  River  at 
western  base  of  Rocky  Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Thorn  Apple  (Cal.,  Utah,  Wash.,  Idaho,  Kev.); 
Hawthorn  (Cal.);  Black  Haw  (Mont.);  Western  Haw  (Oreg.);  Thorn 
(K  Mex.,  Mont.,  Idaho);  ^aw  (Oreg.);  Black  Thorn  (Idabo,  Utah, 
Wash.);  Western  Hawthorn  (Utah);  River  Hawthorn  (Utah);  Wild 
Hawthorn  (Utah);  Thorn-tree;  Wild  Thorn  (Oreg.). 
Crateegus  brachyacantha  Sarg.  &  Engelm.  Hog  Haw. 

Range. — Northwestern  Louisiana  (valley  of  Bayou  Dorcheat)  and  western  Louisi- 
ana to  eastern  Texas  (Sabine  River). 

Names  in  use. — Hog's  Haw  (La.);  Red  Haw  (La.);  Poniette  Bleue 
(La.). 
Crataegus  saligna  Greene.  Willow  Haw. 

Range, — Lower  Cimarron  River,  Colorado. 

Crataegus  crus-galli  Linn.  Cockspur. 

Hange. — P>om  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  Lake  Erie  (north  shores)  and  southward 
to  western  Florida  (Chipola  River);  westward  to  Missouri  and  Texas  (Colorado 
River). 

Names  in  use.— Cockspnr  Thorn  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa., 
Del.,W\Va.,  N.C.,S.C.,Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss., Mo.,  in.,Kans.,Ont.);  Red  Haw 
(Tex.,  111.,  Mich.,  Miss.);  Newcastle  Thorn  (Del..  Miss.);  Thorn  Apple 
(N.  Y.,W.Va.);  Thorn  Bush  (Pa.);  Thorn  (Pa.,  Ky.);  Pin  Thorn  (W. 
Va.);  Thorn  Plum  (Me.);  Cockspur  Hawthorn  (Pa.);  Hawthorn  (Pa.); 
Haw  (S.  C). 

Crataegus  crus-galli  salicifolia  (Medic.)  Ait. 

Willowleaf  Cockspur. 


72 

Crataegus  crus-galli  prunellifolia  (Poir.)  Siulw. 

Broadleaf  Cockspur 
Crataegus  crus-galli  angustifolia  (Ehr.)  8u(l\v. 

Narro-wleaf  Cockspur. 
Crataegus  crus-galli  prunifolia  (Marsh.)  Ton\  &  Gr. 

Plumleaf  Cockspur. 
Crataegus  crus-galli  fontanesiana  (Spach)  Weuz. 
Crataegus  crus  galli  berberifolia  (Torr.  &  Gr.)  Sarg. 

Barberryleaf  Cockspur. 

Range. — South  Atlantic  States,  and  in  western  Louisiana  and  eastern  Texas. 

Crataegus  coccinea  Linn.  Scarlet  Haw. 

IvANGE. — From  Isewfoundlaod  (western  shores)  through  Quebec  and  Ontario  west 
through  Winnipeg  nearly  to  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  south  to 
northern  Florida,  and  west  to  eastern  Texas,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas. 

Names  in  use.— Scarlet  Haw  (N.  H.,  Mass.,  IT.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  N.  C. 
S.  C,  Miss.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Minn.);  Eed  Haw  (R.  I.,  N.  Y., 
W.  Ya.,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  111.,  Nebr.,  Ohio,  Iowa,  Miuii., 
S.  Dak.);  White  Thorn  (Vt.,  R.  L,  Del.,  x\Mss.,  Iowa,  111.,  Kans.,  Minn.. 
Out.);  Scarlet  Thorn  (Yt.,  Mass.,  E.  I.,  N.  J.,  Del.,  Ont.);  Scarlet- fruited 
Thorn  (Mich.,  Minn,);  Eed  Thorn  (Ky.);  Hawthorn  (Pa., Iowa);  Thorn 
(Yt.,  N.  Y.,  Ky.,  Mont.);  Thorn  Bush  (R.  I.,  Pa.);  Thorn  Apple  (Yt., 
Mont.);  Thorn  Apple-tree  (Minn.);  Thorn  Plum  (Me.,  Yt.,  N.  Y.): 
Haw  Bush  (Mont.);  Scarlet  Thorn-Haw  (Fla.);  Hedge  Thorn  (Mont.); 
Eed  Thorn  Bush  (Ky.,  Ind). 

Crataegus  macracantha  (Lindl.)  Loud.      .  Longspine  Ha-w. 

Range. — Eastern  Massachirsetts,  Maine  (coast),  northern  New  Hampshire  and 
Vermont,  Quebec,  and  west  through  Winnipeg,  southern  Michigan,  Missouri,  south- 
western Colorado  and  New  Mexico  (Rocky  Mountains),  eastern  Oregon  and  Washiug- 
tou  (eastern  t..ope.s  Cascade  Mountains). 

Crataegus  mollis  (Torr.  &  Gr.)  Scheele.  Downy  Haw. 

OratyEgus  tomentosa  var.  mollis  Gray. 

Range. — From  Massachusetts  (Bay)  to  northern  New  England  and  Quebec,  and 
■west  through  southern  Michigan  (as  far  north  as  Rosconiuion  County)  to  Missouri.  ;mil 
through  middle  'I'eiinessee  to  northern  Alibama,  and  through  Arkansas  to  Texas 
<'San  Antonio  River):  Mexico  (Sierra  Madre,  near  Saltillo). 

Names  in  use. — Scarlet  Haw;  Eed  Thorn-apple  (Mich.). 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  J^inn.  English  Hawthorn. 

Range. — Euroi)e.  Widely  cultivated,  and  naturalized  in  a  few  localities  in  the 
Eastern  United  States. 

VARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  oxyacaiithoides  (Thiiill.)  Reich. 
Cratffigus  oxyacantha  monogyna  (.Jacq.)  Loud. 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  r.aciniata  (I>orkh.)  de  C. 
Ciatcegus  oxyacantha  diversifolia  (l^oir. )  Sudw. 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  incisa  Rcgel. 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  auriculata  l>ipp. 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  sorbifolia  (Desf.)  Dipp. 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  pinnatiloba  (Lange. )  Sudw. 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  ferox  Dipp. 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  curtispina  Sudw. 


73 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  flexuosa  T.oud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  striata  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  pendula  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  aurea  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  variegata  (Dipp.)  Sndw. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  splendens  (Koch)  Siulw. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  eiiocarpa  Loud, 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  oliveriana  (Poir. )  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  aurantiaca  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  leucocarpa  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  apetala  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  praecox  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  multiplex  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  rosea  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  puuicea  Loud. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  punicea  plena  Sudw. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  semperflorens  Dipp. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  gratanensis  (Boiss.)  Sudw. 

Crataegus  oxyacantha  macrocarpa  (Hegetsch.)  Sudw. 

Crataegus  tomentosa  Linn,  Pear  Haw. 

Range. — From  New  York  (FIudsouRiveruearTroy)  to  eastern  Pennsylvania  (Chest- 
nut Hill);  west  through  central  New  York  to  Michigan  (as  far  north  as  Roscommon 
County)  and  Missouri;  Allegheny  Mountains  from  northern  Georgia  to  Middle  Ten- 
nessee (near  Nashville) ;  through  Arkansas  to  eastern  Texas  (near  Dallas), 

Names  in  use.— Black  Thorn  (E.  I.,  N.  J.,  Pa,,  Del.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  La., 
Miss,,  Ky.,  III.,  Ind.,  Ohio);  Pear  Haw  (Miss.,  Ohio);  Red  Haw  (Miss., 
Mo.);  Pear  Thorn  (R.  L,  N.  J.,  Mich.);  White  Thorn;  Thorn  (K  Y., 
Ky.);  Common  Thorn  (Pa.);  Hawthorn;  Thorn-apple  (111.);  Thorn 
Plum. 

Cratcegus  punctata  Jacq.  Dotted  Haw. 

Crat^gus  tomentosa  var.  punctata  Gray. 

Range.— From  Quebec  (Chateaugay  River  ne:ir  Moutreal)  to  Ontario  (Detroit 
River);  northern  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont  and  south  through  southern  Michi- 
gan and  western  Massachusetts  to  Middle  Tennessee,  and  along  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains to  northern  Georgia  and  Ahibama. 

Name  in  use. — Dotted-fruited  Thorn  (lit.), 
Crataegus  punctata  canescens  Britton.  White  Dotted  Haw. 

Range. — Vermont  (Ferrisburg). 

VARIETY  DISTINGUISHED   IN   CULTIVATION. 

Crataegus  punctata  xanthocarpa  (Medic.)  Lav.       Yellowfruit  Dotted  Haw. 

Crataegus  spathulata  Michx.  Spatulate  Haw. 

Range.— Coast  region  from  southern  Virginia  to  northern  Florida  and  west  to 
Arkansas  (Hot  Springs)  and  Texas  (Colorado  River). 

Crataegus  cordata  (Mill.)  Ait.  Washington  Haw. 

Range.— From  Pennsylvania  fLe\)anon  County)  and  Virginia  (upper  Potomac 
River)  south  in  Appalachian  foothills  region  to  northern  Georgia;  west  to  Middle 
Tennessee,  Kentucky,  and  southern  Illinois  (lower  Wabash  River). 

Names  in  use. —Washington -Thorn  (IST,  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  N,  C,  S,  C, 
111.);  Virginia  Thorn  (Del.);  Heart-leaved  Thorn  (Tenu.);  Thorn  (Ky.); 
Eed  Haw. 


74 
Crataegus  viridis  Linn.  Green  Haw. 

Ra.\(;i:.— Iroin  South  Carolina  (Savannah  River)  to  v/^estern  Florida  (Chatta- 
hoochee River);  Alahama  (mountain  region  to  coast  plain),  from  the  Mississippi 
River  (up  to  near  St.  I.ouis)  to  Texas  (Colorado  River). 

Names  in  use.— Tree  Haw  (Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  S.  C);  Red  Haw  (Ala., 
Miss.,  La.);  Haw  (Ala.);  Seuellier  (La.);  Tree  Thorn  (Fla.). 

Crataegus  apiifolia  (Marsli.)  Micbx,  Parsley  Haw. 

Range. — Coast  region  from  southern  Virginia  to  central  Florida,  and  west  in  the 
Gulf  region  to  southern  Arkansas  and  Texas  (Trinity  River). 

Names  in  use.— Parsley  Haw  (N.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.);  Red 
Haw  (Miss.);  Parsley-leaved  Hl.w  (S.  C). 

Crataegus  flava  Aifc.  Yellow  Haw. 

Raxuk. — Coast  region  from  southern  Virginia  (in  North  Carolina  to  western  sh>pes 
of  the  Allegheny  Mountains)  to  Florida  (Tampa  Jiay);  west  through  Alal>auia 
(mountain  region  to  coast  pine  helt)  and  Mississippi. 

Names  in  use. — Haw  (Fla.);  Yellow  Haw  (Fla.);  Red  Haw. 
Crataegus  elliptica  Ait.  Downy  Yellow  Haw, 

Raxgk— Middle  districts  of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia  to  the 
coast  plain  of  Alabama. 

Name  in  use. — Summer  Haw  (S.  C,  Ga.). 

Crataegus  uniflora  Miieiichli.  Small-leaf  Haw. 

Crat^gus  PAiiviFOLiA  Solander  in  Ait. 

Range. — From  New  Jersey  (Delaware  River)  to  Florida  and  west  in  the  Gulf 
Stati'S  to  l^ouisiana  and  southern  Arkansas. 

Crataegus  aestivalis  (Walt.)  Torr.  &  Gr.  Summer  Haw. 

Range. — Coast  region  i'rom  South  Carolina  (Savannah  River)  to  northern  Florida 
and  west  in  the  Gulf  States  to  Texas  (Sabine  River). 

Names  in  use.— May  Haw   (Tex.);   Apple   Haw   (Fla.);    Summer 

Haw  (Fla.). 

HETEROMELES  Roem. 
Heteromeles  arbutifolia  (Poir.)  Roem.  Christmas-berry. 

Range.— Through  Califoruia  (coast  region  from  Mendocino  County)  and  islands  to 
Lower  California;  iuhmd  to  Sierra  Nevada  and  San  Bernardino  mountains. 

Na:mes  in  use. — California  Holly  (Oal.);  Christmas-berry  (Cal.); 
Chamiso  (Cal.);  Toyon  (Cal.);  Tollon  (Cal.). 

CHRYSOBALANUS  Linn. 
Chrysobalanus  icaco  Linn.  Cocoa  Plum, 

Rangi;. — Southern  Florida  (on  the  east  coast  from  Cai)e  Canaveral  to  Hiscayne 
Bay,  and  on  the  west  coast  from  Caximbas  liay  to  the  southern  keys);  shores  of 
West  Indies,  southern  Mexico,  and  Central  America;  South  America  (northern  and 
eastern  coast  to  southern  Brazil);  Africa  (west  coast  from  Senegambia  to  Congo 
country). 

Names  in  use. — Cocoa  Plum  (Fla.);  Gopher  Plum  (Fla.). 


75 

PRUNUS  Li  I  111. 
Prunus  nigra  Ait.  Canada  Plum. 

Rangk. — From  Newfoundland  through  the  St.  Lawrence  River  valley  to  Manitoba 
(Rainy  and  Assiiiiboine  rivers  and  Lake  Manitoba).  By  cultivation,  naturalized  in 
parts  of  Michitjan,  northern  New  England,  New  York,  and  eastern  Massaclmsetts, 
and  may  also  be  looked  for  in  northern  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota. 

Names  in  use. — Canada  Plum  (Mass.,  X  Y.,  Mich.,  Ont.) ;  Ked  Plum 
(Me.,  Vt,  Out.,  Mich.) ;  Horse  Plum  (Me.,  Yt.) ;  Wild  Plum  (Me.,  Mass., 

Vt.,  K  Y.). 

Prunus  americana  Marsh.  Wild  Plum. 

Range. — From  middle  and  northern  New  Jersey  and  central  New  York  to  Mon- 
tana (Missouri  River),  Nebraska,  Colorado  (eastern  base  Rocky  Mountains),  south- 
ern New  Mexico  (Rio  Grande  River),  and  south  to  western  Florida;  northeastern 
Mexico  (mountains). 

Names  in  use.— Wild  Plum  (R.  I.,  N.  J.,  Del.,  Pa.,  Va.,  W.  Va., 
N.  C,  S.  0.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Ark.,  111.,  lud., 
Ohio,  Mich.,  Out.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Colo.) ;  Yellow  Plum  (N.  Y.,  Del., 
Pa.,  Miss.,  Nebr.) ;  Eed  Plum  (Del.,  Pa.,  K  C,  Miss.,  La.,  Nebr.) ;  Horse 
Plum  (Miss.,  Ark.,  Colo.) ;  Hog-  Plum  (Colo.,  Mo.);  August  Plum  (8.  C); 
Native  Plum  (Iowa);  Plum  (111.);  Plum  Granite;  Goose  Plum  (Ind.)j 
Sloe  (Fla.). 
Prunus  americana  lanata  Sudworth.  WooUyleaf  Plum. 

Range. — Missouri  to  northern  Mexico. 

Prunus  hortulana  Bailey.  G-arden  Wild  Plum. 

Range. — Illinois  (near  Oquawka  on  Mississippi  River);  Missouri  (near  St.  Louis; 
Maramec  River) ;  middle  Tennessee  (near  Lebanon  ;ind  Lewisburg).  Range  imper- 
fectly known  and  may  be  looked  for  from  southern  Illinois  and  Indiana  to  eastern 
Texas. 

Names  in  use. — Wild  Goose  Plum  (Tenn.);  Goose  Plum  (Teiin.). 

Prunus  hortulana  mineri  Bailey.  Miner  Plum. 

Name  in  use. — Goose  Plum  (Tenn.). 

Prunus  angustifolia  Marsh.  Chickasaw  Plum. 

Prunus  chicasa  Michx. 

Range. — Natural  range  uncertain.  Widely  naturalized  from  southern  Delaware 
and  Kentucky  to  eastern  Kansas  and  south  to  central  Florida  and  eastern  Texas. 
Appears  like  a  tree  escaped  from  cultivation. 

Names  in  use. — Chickasaw  Plum  (Del.,  W.  Ya.,  N.  C,  Ga.,  Fla., 
Ala.,  La.,  Tex.,  Miss.,  111.,  Kans.);  Hog  Hum  (Miss.,  Tex.);  Wild  lied 
Cherry  (La.);  Mountain  Cherry;  Yellow  Plum  (Fla.). 

Pnmus  allegheniensis  Porter.  Allegheny  Sloe. 

Range —Central  Pennsylvania  (Tusseys  Mountain,  Huntingdon  County;  Raid 
E:tgle  Mountain  and  valley,  and  Alleghenies  in  Clearlield  and  Klk  counties). 

Prunus  subcordata  Benth.  Pacific  Plum 

Range.— Southern  Oregon  to  central  California  (west  of  the  Cascades  and  Sierra 
Madre  mountains). 

Name  in  use. — Wild  Plum.     * 


76 
Pninus  umbellata^  Ell.  Black  Sloe. 

ItAXci".. — (Oast  r<'gi(iu  iVom  South  Carolina  to  Florida  (Mosquito  lulet  on  the  east 
coast,  and  ou  the  west  coast  from  Tamjia  Bay)  west  to  eastern  Mississippi ;  in  Louis- 
iana (Mississii)iii  Iviver  near  ]5aton  Ilougeand  Red  l^iver  from  Alexandria  to  Slireve- 
port)  to  southern  Arkansas  (near  Camden). 

Names  in  use. — Black  Sloe  (S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Miss.);  ISoutbern  Biil- 
lace  Plum  (S.  C,  Ala.,  Miss.);    Hog  Plum  (Fla.);    Wild  Plum  (Fla.); 
Sloe. 
Prunus  emaraiinata  (Dougl.)  AValp.  Bitter  Cherry. 

l\AX(iE. — From  Montana  (upper  Jocko  Kiver)  through  tlie  mountains  of  Idaho  and 
Washington,  and  southern  British  Columbia  to  Vancouver  Island;  south  through 
western  Washington,  Oregon,  an<l  northern  California  (on  coast  ranges,  to  near  San 
Francisco  Bay);  southward  in  California  (on  western  slopes  Sierra  Xevada  to  the 
Yosemite  Valley,  and  on  eastern  slopes  Sierras  to  Lake  Tahoe  and  vicinity  of  Car- 
son City,  Xev.);  also  on  Santa  I>U(ia  Mountains;  Xevada  (Washoe  Mountain). 

Names  ix  use. — Wild  Plum  (Cal.);  Bitter  Cherry  (Idaho,  Cal.); 
Wild  Cheirj^ 

Prunus  eiuarginata  villosa  Sudworth.  Woollyleaf  Cherry. 

Prunus  emargixata  var.  mollis  Brewer,  liot  Torr. 

Range. — Southern  California  (San  Bernardino  Mountains), 

Prunus  pennsylvanica  Liim.  f.  Wild  Red  Cherry. 

Range. — From  Xewfoundland  and  Labrador  (Strait  of  Bellisle)  northward  to  Hud- 
son Bay  (near  Big  River),  south  Indian  Lake,  and  west  to  British  Columbia  (eastern 
slopes  coast  ranges  in  valley  Fraser  River);  south  to  Pennsylvania  and  along  the 
Allegheny  Mouutayis  to  western  North  Carolina  and  eastern  Tennessee,  to  Michigan 
(as  far  south  as  Ionia  County),  northern  Illinois,  central  Iowa;  Colorado  (eastern 
slopes  of  Rocky  ^lonntains). 

Names  in  use.— Wild  Red  Cherry  (Me.,  Vt.,  N.  H..  .Mass.,  R.  I., 
Comi.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Va.,  N.  C,  Mich.,  Out.,  111.,  Wis.,  Iowa,  Minu., 
N.  Dak.);  Piu  Cherry  (N.  H.,  Vt.,  N.  Y.,  Mich.,  Iowa,  N.  Dak.);  Pigeou 
Cherry  ( Vt.,  N.  H.,  P. I., N.  Y., Out.,  N. Dak.) ;  Wild  Cherry  ( N.  Y.,  Teun.) ; 
Bird  Cherry  (Me.,  N.  H.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Minn.,  Iowa):  Re<l  Cherry  (Me., 
R.  I.);  Fire  Cherry  (N.  Y.). 

Prunus  cerasus  Linn.  Sour  Cherry. 

Raxgk. — Europe.  Escaped  from  cultivation  and  rimuing  wild  in  various  localities 
in  eastern  United  States. 

Prunus  mahaleb  Linn.  Mahaleb  Cherry. 

Raxgk. — Europe;.  Escaped  from  cultivation  and  running  wild  in  southern  New 
York  and  eastern  Pennsylvania. 

Prunus  avium  Linn.  S^weet  Cherry. 

Range. — Europe.  Escaped  from  cultivation  and  running  wild  in  various  localities 
in  eastern  United  States. 

Prunus  virginiana  Linn.  Choke  Cherry. 

Kaxgk. — From  Labrador  and  Hudson  liay  region  to  the  Mackenzie  Iiivrr  (latitude 
62'^)  and  northern  British  Columbia  (coast  region);  south  to  southern  Georgia, 
Louisiana,  Texas,  and  northern  Mexico. 

Names  in  use. — Choke  Cherry  (Mich.,  Wis.) ;  Wild  Cherry. 

'Dr.  J.  K.  Small  has  recently  described  the  following  new  species:  Pruiuts  injii- 
cunda  Small,  in  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  vol.  25,  p.  1-10,  1898.  Detected  on  Stone  Moun- 
tain and  Little  Stone  Mountain.  Georgia.  Said  to  be  a  tree  1.")  to  20  feet  high,  and 
formerly  coniused  with  Prunus  iimbellata.     I  have  not  seen  specimens  of  this  species. 


77 

VARIETIKS    DISTINGUISHED    IN   CULTIVATION. 

Prunus  virginiaiia  leiicocarpa  AVats.  White-fruit  Choke  Cherry. 

Prunus  virginiana  pendens  Siulw.  Weeping  Choke  Cherry. 

Prunus  virginiana  nana  (Da  Roi)  Dipp.  Dwarf  Choke  Cherry. 

Prunus  demissa  (Nutt.)  Walp.  Western  Choke  Cherry. 

Range — Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  (in  United  States j. 

Names  in  use.— Wild  Cbeny  (Cal.,  N.  Mex.,  Utah,  Idaho,  Mont., 
Oreg-.);  Cboke  Cherry  (Cal.,  Nev.,  Idaho,  Utah);  California  Cherry 
(Cal.);  Western  Choke  Cherry. 

Prunus  serotina  Ehrh.  Black  Cherry. 

Range. — From  Nova  Scotia  westvrard  through  Canadian  Provinces  to  the  K..  Jiinis- 
tiquia  River;  south  to  Florida  (Matauzaa  Inlet  and  Tampa  Bay)  and  west  to  North 
Dakota  (Missouri  River),  eastern  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  Indian  Territory,  and  eastern 
Texas;  western  Texas  (mountains). 

Names  in  use.— Wild  Black  Cherry  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Del.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Iowa,  Wis.,  Kans.,  Nebr., 
Minn.,  Ohio,  S.  Dak.  (cult.),  Ont.);  Wild  Cherry  (Conn.,  K  J.,  Pa., 
Del.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  Ind.,  111.,  Iowa, 
Wis.);  Black  Cherry  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  R.  L,  N.  Y.,  Miss.,  Ky.,  Mich., 
Wis.,  Ind.,  Nebr.);  Rum  Cherry  (N.  H.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Miss.,  Nebr.); 
Whisky  Cherry  (Minn.);  Choke  Cherry  (Mo.,  Wis.,  Iowa). 

Prunus  serotina  neomontana  Sudworth.    Mountain  Black  Cherry 

R.A.NGE. — .Southwestern  Virginia  ("balds"  ou  White  Top  Mountain);  Alabjima 
(Talladega  and  Clay  counties). 

VARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Prunus  serotina  penduliformis  Sudw.  Weeping  Black  Cherry. 

Prunus  serotina  asplenifolia  Dipp.  Fernleaf  Black  Cherry. 

Prunus  salicifolia  H.  B.  K.  Willowleaf  Cherry. 

Prunus  capuli  Cav. 

Range. — Southern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  (mountains);  Mexico  (mountains); 
Central  America  (Pacific  coast  region) ;  Colombia  and  Peru. 

Names  in  use. — Mexican  Cherry-tree;  Mexican  Cherry. 
Prunus  caroliniana  (Mill.)  Ait.  Laurel  Cherry. 

Range.— Coast  region  and  islands  (15  to  20  miles  inland)  from  South  Carolina 
(Cape  Fear  River)  to  Florida  (Biscayne  Bay  and  Kissimmee  River) ;  west  in  the  Gulf 
regioQ  through  southern  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Texas  (to  Guadalupe 

River). 

NajVIES  in  use. — Wild  Peach  (Miss.,  La., Tex.);  W^ild  Orange  (N.  C, 
S.  C,  Miss.,  Tex.);  Mock  Orange  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.); 
Laury  Muudy  (La.);  Laurii  amande  (La.);  Cherry  Laurel  (Fla.);  Ever- 
green Cherry  (Tex.);  Mock  Olive  (Fla.);  Carolinian  Cherry  (lit.); 
Laurel  Cherry. 

Prunus  sphserocarpa  Swartz.  West  India  Cherry. 

Range.  — Florida  (Biscayne  Bay);  West  Indies;  Bia/il. 

Name  in  use. — West  India  Cherry  (Fla.). 


i 


78 
Prunus  ilicifolia  (IN'utt.)  Walp.  Hollyleaf  Cherry. 

Range. — California  (from  San  Francisco  Bay  throngh  tli«  const  ranges,  also  on 
western  slopes  of  San  Bernardino  Mountains  and  on  Santa  Cruz  and  Santa  Rosa 
islands)  to  Lower  California  (San  Julio  ("anyon). 

Names  in  use. — iSpauish  Wild  Cherry  (Cal.);  Islay  (Cal.);  Ever- 
green Cherry  (Cal.);  Holly-leaved  Cherry  (Cal.);  Oakleaf  Cherry  (Cal.); 
Holly  Cherry  (Cal.);  Wild  Cherry  (Cal.);  Holly  (Cal.);  Mountain  Ever- 
green Cherry  (Cal.i. 

Prunus  icilifolia  integrifolia  Sud worth.  Entire-leaf  Cherry. 

Range. — California  (coast  i.slands  and  mainland). 

Prunus  persica  (Linn.)  Stokes.  Peach. 

Range. — China.  Escaped  from  cultivation  and  running  wild  in  various  localities 
in  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  Middle  and  South  Atlantic  region,      y'  ' 

"'\  Family    LEaXIMilNOS^E. 

^^'  ZYG-IA  Browne.  '^^J 

Zygia  unguis-cati  (Linn.)  Sudworth.  Florida  Catsclaw. 

PiTHKCOLOEIUM   UNGUIS-CATI   Benth. 
Rangk. — Florida  (Caximbas  Bay)  and  southern  keys;  West  Indies  to  V^enezuela 
and  New  Granada . 

xS^AMEs  IN  USE. — Cat's  Claw  (Fla.) ;  Long  Pod  (Fla.). 

Zygia  brevifolia  (Benth.)  Sudworth.  Huajillo. 

PiTHECOLOBIUM   BREVIFOLIUM   Benth. 
Range. — Texas  (Lower  Rio  Grande  River  from  Rio  Grande  City  to  mouth  of  the 
river);  Mexico  (mouth  of  Rio  Grande  River  to  Sierra  Madre  Mountains,  etc.). 

Zygia  flexicaulis  (Benth.)  Sudworth.  Texan  Ebony. 

Acacia  flexicaulis  Benth. 

Range. — (Julf  coast  of  Texas  (from  Matagorda  Bay)  to  Mexico  (Sierra  Madre 
Mountains  in  Nuevo  Leon);  I^ower  California  (La  Paz). 

LYSILOMA  Benth. 
Lysiloma  latisiliqua  (Linn.)  Benth.  Wild  Tamarind. 

Range. — Florida  keys — Largo,  Elliotts,  Plantation,  Boca  Chica;  Bahamas;  Wes* 
Indies. 

Name  in  use. — Wild  Tamarind  (Fla.). 

ACACIA  Adans. 
Acacia  farnesiana  (Linn.)  Willd.  Huisache. 

Range. — Native  in  America  (from  Rio  Grande  River  to  northern  Chile) ;  Australia 
(northeastern  and  north  central);  Africa  (subtropical);  naturalized  in  West  Indies, 
Guiana,  Brazil,  Argentin^,,  Africa  (northern  and  north-tropical),  India,  China  (south- 
ern), Indian  Archipelago,  and  islands  of  Pacific  Ocean.  Widely  cultivated  and 
naturalized  from  the  Gulf  coast  region  to  southern  California. 

Names  in  use. — Huisache  (Tex.);  Cassie  (Tex.). 
Acacia  vrrightii  Benth.  Texas  Catsclaw. 

Range. — Western  Texas  (from  the  Guadalupe  River)  to  Mexico  (Sierra  Madre 
Mountains  in  Nuevo  Leon). 

Name  in  use. — Cat's  Claw  (Tex.). 


79 

Acacia  greggii  Gray.  Devils  Claw. 

Rangk. — From  AVestcrn  Texas  (Rio  Grande  River)  through  sontheru  j^ew  Mexico 
and  Arizona  to  southern  California. 

Names  in  use. — Cat's  Claw  (Tex.,  Cal.,  Ariz.);  Paradise  Flower 
(N.  Mex.);  Devil's  Claws  (Xev.);  Rainsliorn;  Una  de  Gato. 

LEUC^NA  Hooker.      ' 
Leucaena  glauca  (Linn.)  lieiitli.  Leucaena. 

]\AX(;e. — Western  Texas  (from  S;in  Saba  t<>  Devils  River);  Florida  (Key  West); 
Mexico;  West  Indies  and  Babanias;  South  America  (down  to  southern  Brazil);  trop- 
ical Africa  and  Asia.     Native  ranj^e  uncertain;  established  mostly  by  cultivation. 

Leucsena  pulverulenta  (Scblecbt.)  Benth.  Chalky  Leuceena. 

Range. — Texas  (few  milea  above  mouth  of  Rio  Grande  River);  Mexico  (from 
Matamoras  to  Monterey  in  Nuevo  Leon;  Misantla  River,  near  San  Antonio;  at 
Orizaba  and  Cordova,  near  city  of  Mexico). 

i^AME  IN  USE. — Mimosa. 

PROSOPIS  Linn. 

Prosopis  odorata  Torr.  &  Frem.  Screw^bean. 

Prosopis  pubescens  Beiith. 

Range, — Western  Texas  (valley  of  Rio  Grande  River,  from  Devils  River  to  El 
Paso) ;  west  through  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  southern  borders  of  Utah  ami  Nevada  to 
California  (arid  region  of  Colorado  Basin  to  San  Diego  County);  northern  Mexico. 

Names  in  use. — Screwbeau  (Tex.,  Utah,  N.  Mex.,  Ariz.,  Nev.,  Cal.); 
Screw-Pod  Mesquite  (Tex.,  Utah,  Ariz.,  N.  Mex.,  Nev.,  Cal.);  Tornillo 
(Tex.,  Utah,  N.  Mex.,  Ariz.,  Nev.);  Mescrew  (Nev.);  Screwbeau  Mes- 
quite (Ariz.). 
Prosopis  juliflora  (Swartz)  de  C.  Mesquite. 

Range. — From  the  southern  border  of  Indian  Territory  and  northern  and  western 
Texas  (eastern  limit  defined  by  a  line  from  the  intersection  of  latitinle  37°  with  the  / 
one  hundredth  meridian  to  Dallas;  thence  south  to  the  Colorado  River  and  south- V 
westward  within  20  or  30  miles  of  the  Gulf,  which  is  reached  near  the  mouth  of  the  ( 
Rio  Grande  River)  into  northern  Mexico.     Also  from  the  southern  borders  of  Colo-  \ 
rado  and  Utah  through  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  southern  Nevada  to  southern    J 
California  (western  limit  defined  by  a  line'from  Tejon  Pass  over  Los  Angeles  to  San  / 
Pedro);  in  Lower  California;  western  South  America  (Andean  region  to  Chile)ir 
Argentina  and  southern  Brazil;  Jamaica. 

Names  in  use. — Mesquite  (Tex.,  N.  Mex.,  Ariz.,  Cal.);  Algaroba 
(Tex.,  N.  Mex.,  Ariz.,  Cal.);  Honey  Locust  (Tex.,  N.  Mex  );  Honey  Pod 
(Tex.);  Ironwood  (Tex.). 

CERCIS  Linn. 

Cercis  canadensis  Linn.  RedbudA 

Range. — From  New  Jersey  (Delaware  River)  and  southern  Michigan  (Grand  and  / 
Raisin   rivers)  to  Florida  (Tampa    Bay),  northern  Alabama  (Tennessee  River  to/ 
Madison,  Monte   Sano,   Cullman,  Tuscaloosa)  and    Mississippi;  west  to   Missouri.?; 
eastern  borders  of  Indian  Territory,  Louisiana,  Texas  (Brazos  River) ;  Mexico  (Sierra^ 
Madre  in  Nuevo  Leon).  'I 

Names  in  use.-  Redbud  (Mass.,  N.  Y.  (cult.),  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  D.  G^ 
ya.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Ark.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind., 


80 

Mich,  (cult.);  Judas-tree  (Mass.,  E.  I.,  N.  Y.  (cult.),  N.  J.,  Del.,  Pa., 
D.  C,  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  111.,  Iii(l.,Ohio.,  Mich.,Miim. 
(cult.);  Eed  Judas-tree;  Salad-tree  (Del.):  Canadian  Judas  tree  (lit.). 

Cercis  canadensis  pubescens  Pursb.  Do-wny  Redbud. 

Range. — Type  locality,  "Georgia;"  westward. 

VARIETY   DISTINCiUlSHEl)    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Cercis  canadensis  plena  Siidw.  '      Double-flOTver  Redbnd. 

Cercis  reniformis  Engelm.  Texas  Redbud. 

Range.— Eastern  Texas  (from  near  Dallas)  to  Mexico  (Sierra  Madre  m  Niievo 
Leon). 

Names  in  use. — lledbud  (Tex.);  Texas  Eedbud. 

GLEDITSIKk  Linn.     ^^^  ^^^ 

Gleditsia  triacanthos  Linn,      t'^'"  Honey  Locust. 

Range. — From  Pennsylvania  (western  slopes  Allegheny  Mountains)  west  tlirongh 
sonthern  Ontario  (Pelee Island,  Lake  Erie),  southern  jNIichigan  (npto  River  Raisin)  to 
eastern  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  Indian  Territory  (to  longitude  OB-');  south  to  Georgia 
and  through  Alabama,  ISIississippi,  and  Texas  (to  Brazos  River).  Range  more  or  less 
extended  elsewhere  by  seeding  from  cultivated  trees. 

Names  in  usl. — Honey  Locust  ( Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Pa.,  Del.,  D.  C. ,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  0.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex., 
Ark., Ky., Mo., Ohio, 111.,  Ind.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Micb.,  Iowa);  Black  Locust 
(Miss., Tex.,  Ark., Kans.,Nel)r.);  Sweet  Locust  (S.  C,La.,  Kans.,  Nebr.); 
Three-thorned  Acacia  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  La.,  Tex.,  JSebr.,  Mich.,  Ont.) ;  Tliorn 
Locust  (N.  Y., Ind.,  La.);  Thorutree  (N.  Y.,  Ind.,  La.);  Thorny  Locust 
(K  J.) ;  Locust  (Nebr.) ;  Honey  (R.  I.,N.  J.,  Iowa) ;  Honey  Shucks  (R.  I., 
N.  J.,  Va.,  Fhi.,  Iowa);  Tliorny  Acacia  (Tenn.);  Honey-Sh\4.cks  Locust 
(Ky.):  Piquant  Amourette  (La.);  Confederate  Pintiee  (Fla  ). 

Grleditsia  triacanthos  laevis  (Loud.)  Sudworth. 

Thornless  Honey  Locust. 

(tLeditsia  triacanthos,  var.  inekmis  Willd. 

G-leditsia  triacanthos  brachycarpos  Michx. 

Short-pod  Honey  Locust. 

VARIETY   DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Gleditsia  triacanthos  bnjotii  (Keum.)  nom.  nov.  Bujot  Locust 

GiEDiTSiA  lujJOTii  Neumann. 

Grleditsia  aquatica  Marsh.  Water  Locust. 

Gleditsia  monosperma  Walt. 

Range. — Coast  region,  from  South  Carolina  to  Florida  (Matanzas  Inlet  and  Tampa 
Bay),  from  which  it  extends  along  the  Gulf  coast  to  Texas  (Brazos  River);  nortli- 
ward  through  western  Louisiana  and  southern  .\rkansas,  southern  Missouri,  middle 
and  west  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  southern  Illinois,  and  Indiana. 

if  ame  in  USB. — Water  Locust  (Fla.,  La.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  111.). 


w  ^-v   *^^ 


81i 


r^«MW£Ri^ 


<p-^cfcw^ 


G-YMNOCLAmrS  Lam.     .         a 

Grymnocladus  dioicus  (Linn.)  Koch.  rOW^A/A^lTO/Qpffeetree. 

Gymnocl,adu8  canadensis  Lam.  (/ 

Range. — New  York  (Cayuga  .md  Seneta  lakes);  Pennsylvania  (Coiiococheague 
Creek,  Franklin  County),  and  west  through  southern  Ontario  (Pelee  Island,  Lake 
Erie),  southern  Michigan  (Maple  River,  in  Clinton  County;  Fish  Creek,  in  Mont' 
calm  County;  Grand  River),  to  Minnesota  (Minnesota  River),  eastern  Nebraska, 
eastern  Kansas,  southwestern  Arkansas,  Indian  Territory  (longitude  96°);  south- 
wartl,  mainly  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  Allegheny  Mountains,  to  Tennessee 
(upper  eastern  section  and  middle  section,  near  Nashville).  Range  somewhat 
extended  elsewhere  by  seeding  from  cultivated  trees. 

Names  in  use. — Kentucky  Coffeetree  (Mass.,  R.  I.  (cult.),  N.  Y.,  Pa. 
(cult.),  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  Miss.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,  Kaus.,  Ont.,  Mich., 
Iowa) ;  Coffeenut  (Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  lud.,  Nebr.) ;  Coffeetree  (W.  Va.,  Ark., 
Ky.,  iSTebr.) ;  Coffeebeau  (111.,  Kans.,  ISfebr.) ;  Coffeebean-tree  (Ky.,  Ark.) ; 
Mahogany  (N.  Y.);  Yirgilia  (Tenn.);  Nickertree  (Tenn.);  Stumptree 
(Tenu.). 

PARKINSONIA  Linn. 

Parkinsonia  aculeata  Linn.  Horse-bean. 

Range. — Texas  (lower  Rio  Grande  River);  Arizona  and  California  (in  valley  of 
Colorado  River);  northern  Mexico  and  Lower  California. 

Names  in  use. — Horse-beau ;  Ketama  (Tex.). 
Parkinsonia  microphylla  Torr.  Small-leaf  Horse-bean. 

Range. — Southern  Arizona  (desert  region);    southern  California  (desert   region 
adjoining  Arizona);  Lower  California  (adjoining  California);  Mexico  (Sonora). 
Names  in  use, — Desert  Bush;  Jerusalem  Thorn;  Palo  Verde  (CaL). 

CERCIDIUM  Tulasne. 
Cercidium  floridum  Benrh.  Gi-reenbark  Acacia. 

Range. — Western  Texas  (.Matagorda  Bay  to  Hidalgo  County)  to  Mexico  (mouth  of 
Rio  Grande  River  to  foothills  of  .Sierra  Madre;  also  near  Monterey). 

Names  in  use. — Green-barked  Acacia  (Ariz.);  Palo  Verde  (Tex., 
Ariz.,  N.  Mex  );  Acacia. 

Cercidium  torreyanum  (Wats.)  Sargent.  '         Palo  Verde. 

Parkinsonia  torreyana  Wats. 

Range. — Southern  California  (Colorado  Desert)  and  Arizona  (lower  Gila  River 
Valley)  and  sonth  into  Mexico  (Sonora)  and  Lower  California. 

Names  in  use. — Green  barked  Acacia;  Palo  Verde. 

SOPHORA  Linn. 
Sophora  secundiflora  (Cav.)  de  C.  Frijolito. 

Ka.ngk.— Southern  Texas  (Matagorda  Bay)  to  New  Mexico  (mountain  cauyous) 
and  southward  into  Mexico  (mountain  canyons  of  NnevoLeon  and  San  Luis  I'otosi). 

Names  in  use. — Coral  Beau ;  Frijolito  (Tex.). 
Sophora  affinis  Torr.  &  Gr.  Sophora. 

Range. — Arkansas  (from  Arkansas  River)  to  Texas  (San  Antonio  River  and  west 
"ward  to  the  upper  Colorado  River). 

Names  in  use. — Pink  Locust  (Tex.);  Beaded  Locust  (Tex.). 
-.       11U93— No.  17 (> 


82 

CLADRASTIS  Raf. 

Cladrastis  lutea  (Michx.  f.)  Koch,  Yellow- wood. 

ClADKASTIS  TINCTOlilA  IJaf. 
Range. — Central  Kentucky  (Kentucky  and  Dick  rivers);  middle  Tennessee  (near 
Nashville)  and   eastern   Tennessee  (Great  Smoky  Mountains  in  Cocke  and   Sevier 
/•ouuties) ;  North  Carolina  (Cherokee  County);  Alabama  (Tennessee  River  Valley, 
near  Colbert,  Sheffield  l.andiiig). 

Names  in  use. — Yellow- wood  (Tonn.,  IST.  C);  Yellow  Locust  (Ky., 
Teuu.);  Yellow  Ash;  (xoplierwood  (Teiin.) 

EYSENHARDTIA  H.  B.  K. 
Eysenhardtia  orthocarpa  ((xray)  Wats.  Eysenhardtia. 

Range. — From  western  Texas  (upper  Guadalupe  River)  to  southern  Arizona  (Santa 
(  atalina  and  Santa  Rita  mountains)  and  south  into  Mexico  (to  southwestern  Chi- 
huahua and  to  near  San  Luis  Potosi). 

DALEA  Willd. 
Dalea  spinosa  Gray.  Indigo  Thorn. 

Range. — Southern  California  (Colorado  Desert — at  Agna  Caliente  and  Toras)  and 
eastward  into  Arizona  (to  lower  Gila  River);  south  into  adjacent  Mexico  (Sonora) 
and  Lower  California  (to  Calamujuet). 

Names  in  use. — Dalea  (Ual.);  Indigo  Bush  (Cal.k  .  y  •  ,^  f 
Robinia  pseudacacia  Linn.      ,>i,>-%iJ  ,      r  Locust^^  » 

I\AN(iE. — From  I'eTinsylvnnia  (on  the  Appalachian  Mountains  from  Locust  Ridge  in    /f^ 
Marion  County)  to  northern  Georgia.     Widely  naturalized  Tlirongh  cultivntiou  iind      ^ 
other  agencies  throughout  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  possibly        • 
indigenous  in  ]tarts  of  Arkansas  (Crowley's  Ridg(>,  etc.)  :ind  eastern  Indian  Territory; 
also  in  the  (Jreat  Smoky  Mountains  of  eastern  Tennessee  (Sevier  County). 

Names  in  use. — Locust  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn..  X.  Y., 
N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  Aik., 
Ariz.,  111.,  Wis.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Mich.,  Iowa,  Minn.);  Black 
Locust  (Pa.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La..  Tex.,  Aik.^  Ky., 
Mo.,  111.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Mich.,  Minn.);  Yellow  Locust 
(Vt.,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  Miss.,  La.,  111.,  Ijid.,  Kans., 
Nebr.,  Minn.);  White  T^ocnst  (R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Tcnn.);  Red  Locust  (Teun.); 
Green  Locust  (Tenn.);  Acacia  (La.);  False  Acacia  (S.  C,  Ala.,  Tex., 
Minn.);  Honey  Locust  (Minn.);  Bastard  Acacia  (lit.);  Pea-flower 
Locust;  Post  Locust  (Md.). 

VAUIETIKS    DISTINCillSHEI)    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  decaisueana  Cair.  Pink  Locust. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  crispa  de  C.  Crinkleleaf  Locust. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  amplifolia  Sudw.  Broadleaf  Locust. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  angustifolia  (Loud.)  Lav.  Smallleaf  Locust. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  monophylla  I'etz.  A  Kirchn.  Simpleleaf  Locust. 

Robinia  oseudacacia  tortuoa*  (liolVm.)  de  C.  Twistbranch  Locust. 


■n^"^^  -^  "^^  '^M-^vwij  ki 


83 

Robinia  pseudacacia  pyramidalis  Petz.  &  Kirchn.  Pyramid  Locust. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  pendula  (Ortega)  Loud.  Weeping  Locust. 

Robiuia  pseudacacia  inermis  (Jai-q.y  .Sudw.  Parasol  Locust. 
Robinia  pseudacacia  spectabilis  (Du  Mont  Cour.)  Koch.     Thornless  Locust. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  latisiliqua  Loud.  Broadpod  Locust. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  dissecta  (Koch)  Sarg.  Cutleaf  Locust. 

Robiuia  pseudacacia  glaucescens  Koch.  Blue  Locust. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  aurea  (Koch)  Dipp.  Goldenleaf  Locust. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  purpurea  l>ipp.  Purpleleaf  Locust. 

Robiuia  pseudacacia  argenteo-variegata  (Koch)  Sudw.  Spotted  Locust. 

Robinia  neo-mexicana  Gray.  New-Mexican  Locust. 

KaN(;e.— Colorado  (Croiu  Purgatory  Kiver)  throuj^h  northern  New  .Mexico  and 
Arizona  (to  Santa  Catalina  and  Santa  Kita  mountains)  and  to  southern  Ttah  (near 
Kanah  and  in  Mount  Ziou  (^anyon,  west  fork  of  Kio  Virgen  Kiver). 

Name  in  use. — Locust  (Ariz.,  N.  Mex.). 
Robinia  viscosa  Veut.  Clammy  Locust. 

Raxge. — Mountains  of  North  Carolina.  Widely  naturalized  l>y  cultivation  cast  of 
the  Mississippi  River. 

Names  in  use. — ClamDiy  Locust  (Mass.,  K.  I.,  X.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  X.C, 
S.  C,  La.,  Miss.,  111.) ;  Honey  Locust  (N.  Y.,  N.  J.) ;  Red-flowering  Locust 
(Ala.);  Eose-flowering-  Locust  (Tenn.);  Rose  Acacia  (Vt.,  R.  I.,  Pa.). 

VARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Robinia  viscosa  albiflora  Dipp.  White-flower  Clammy  Locust. 

Robiuia  dubia  P^ouc. 
Robinia  bella-rosea  Nichol. 

OLNEYA  Gray. 
Olneya  tesota  Gray.  Sonora  Iron-v^ood. 

Range. — Southern  California  (from  Colorado  River  south  of  Mohave  Miuintains) 
tosouthwestern  Arizona  and  through  adjacent  Mexico  (Sonora)  and  Lower  California 
(between  Comundee  and  Calauuijnet). 

Names  in  use. — Iron  Wood  (Cal.);  Arbol  de  Hierro  (Cal.);  Palo  de 
Hierro  (Ariz.). 

ICHTHYOMETHIA  Browne. 
Ichthyomethia  piscipula  (Linn.)  Kuntze.  Jamaica  Dogrwood. 

PiSCIDIA  ERYTHRINA  Linn. 
Range. — Southern  Florida  (Hiscayne   Bay  on  east  coast,  and  on   the  west  from 
Pease  Creek  to  Cape  Sable)  and  southern  keys;  West  Indies  and  southern  Mexico. 
Name  in  t'SE. — Jamaica  I)oj]fwo<)d  (Fla.). 


Family  ZYaOP»HYLL^CE^3i;. 

G-UAJACUM  Linn. 
Guajacum  sanctum  Linn.  Lignum-vitae. 

Ra.vge. — Florida  keys  from  Key  West  eastward    (up])er  and  lower    Metacoinbe 
keys.  Lii^num  vitie  Keys,  CinhrellaKoys);   Bahamas,  Saii  Domingo,  and  I'uerto  Rico. 

Names  in  use. — Lignum- vitie  (I'^la.);  Iron  wood  (Fla.). 


84 

Family  RX^T^CE^E. 

XANTHOXYLp-M  Linn. 

Xanthosylum  clava-herculis  JJnn.  Prickly  Ash. 

Range. — Coast  regiou  Iroin  southern  Virginia  to  Florida  (Biscaync;  Bay  and  rani])a 
Bay);  west  through  the  Gulf  .States  to  northwestern  Lonisiana,  aouthern  Arkansas, 
and  through  Texas  (to  Devils  River). 

Names  in  use.-  Prickly  Ash  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex., 
Ark.) ;  Toothache-tree  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ark.) ;  Pepper- wood 
(Miss.);  Sea  Ash  (Miss.,  Fla.);  Southern  Prickly  Ash  (Ala.);  Ash 
(Va.);  Freiie-piquant  (La.);  Sting-tongue  (Fla.  Negroes,  Ark.);  Wait- 
a-bit,  Tear-blanket  (Ark.);  Wild  Orange. 
Xanthoxylum  clava-herculis  fruticosum  Gray. 
Xanthoxylum  cribrosum  Spreng.  Satinwood. 

Rangk. — Floriila  keys  (Marquesas  Keys,  South  Bahia  Honda,  and  Boca  Chica 
Keys) ;  San  Domingo,  Puerto  l\'ico,  Bahamas,  and  Bermuda. 

Names  in  use. — Yellow-wood  (Fla.);  Satinwood  (Fla.). 

Xanthosylum  fagara  (Linn.)  Sargent.  Wild  Lime. 

Xanthoxylum  pterota  H.  B.  K. 

Range. — Southern  Florida  coast  and  islands  (on  the  east  coast  south  of  Mosquito 
Inlet  and  on  the  west  coast  soutli  of  latitude  29  ) ;  coast  of  Texas  (from  Matagorda  Bay 
to  the  Rio  Grande  River);  West  Indies;  northern  Mexico;  Central  and  South 
America  (to  Brazil  and  Pern). 

Name  in  use. — Wild  Lime  (Fla.). 

PTELEA  Linn. 
Ptelea  trifoliata  Linn.  Hoptree. 

Rangk. — Southern  Ontario  (Point  Pelee, Lake  Untario) ;  New  York  (Long  Island) ; 
Pennsylvania  and  west  through  southern  Michigan  (up  to  Montcalm  County)  to 
Minnesota;  south  to  northern  Florida  and  west  to  Texas,  and  through  New  Mexico 
to  Colorado  (Mimbres  River);  northern  Mexico. 

Names  in  use. — Hoptree;  Wafer  Ash;  Whahoo;  Quinine-tree 
(Mich.). 

VARIETY    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Ptelea  trifoliata  aurea  Xich.  Golden  Hoptree. 

HELIETTA  Tulasne. 

Helietta  parvifolia  Benth.  Baretta. 

Range. — Texas  (near  Rio  Grande  City):  Mexico  (south  of  the  lower  Rio  Grande 
to  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Madrc  Mountains  and  through  Nuevo  Leon). 

AMYRIS  Browne. 

Axnyris  maritima  J  acq.  Torch^vood. 

Amyris  sylvatica  de  C. 

Range. — Southern  Florida  (from  Mosquito  Inlet  on  the  east  coast  to  the  southerr 
keys) ;  Bahamas,  St.  Thomas.  Cuba,  and  Jamaica  Islands. 

Name  in  use. — Torchwood  (Fla,). 


85 

CANOTIA  Torr. 
Canotia  holacantha  Torr.  Canotia. 

Range. — Arizona  (from  White  Mountain  region  to  tlie  Bill  Williams  (River)  Fork) ; 
sontliern  California  (Providence  Mountains). 

Name  in  use. — Canotia  (Ariz.). 

Family  SI]Vd:A.IlOUB^CE^E. 

SIMAROUBA  Aublet. 

Simarouba  glauca  de  C.  Paradise-tree. 

Range. — Southern  Florida  (from  Cape  Canaveral,  on  the  west  coast,  to  the  south- 
ern keys  and  to  Biscayne  Bay);  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Nicaragua,  and  Brazil. 

Names  in  use.— Paradise-tree  (Fla.);  Gumbo  Limbo  (Fla.) ;  Bitter - 
wood  (Fla.). 

KCBBERLINIA  Zucc. 
Kceberlinia  spinosa  Zucc.  Koeberliiiia„ 

Range. — Texas  (from  valley  of  Rio  Grande  River  southward)  to  northern  Mexico 
(to  near  Altar  River,  in  Sonora,  and  to  near  San  Luis  Potosi). 


AILANTHU 


3teirw<i 


Ailanthus  glandulosa  Desf.  jt  " 

Range. — China;  but  widely  naturalized  in  Eastern  United  States. 
VARIETIES  DISTINGUISHED  IN  CULTIVATION. 

Ailanthus  glandulosa  rubra  Dipp.  Redfruit  Ailanthua 

Ailanthus  glandulosa  pendulifolia  Dipp.  Drooping  Ailanthus. 

Ailanthus  glandulosa  aucubaefolia  Dipp. 


Family  BUIlSEIlA.OE.a5. 

BURSERA  Jacq. 

Bursera  simaruba  (Linn.)  Sargent.  G-umbo  Limbo. 

BURSERA  GUMMIFERA  Linn. 
Range. — Southern  Florida  (on  the  east  coast  from  Cape  Canaveral  to  the  southern 
keys;  west  coast  on  Caloosa  River  and  Caximbas   Bay);   West  Indies,  sonthern 
Mexico,  Guatemala,  New  Grenada,  Venezuela. 

Names  in  use. — Gum  Elemi  (Fla.);    Gumbo  Limbo  (Fla.);   West 
Indian  Birch  (Fla.). 

Family  DMELI^OE 

MELIA  Linn. 
Melia  azedarach  Linn. 

Range.— Persia.     Widely  cultivated  jn  Old  and  New  World  and  naturalized  by- 
cultivation  in  Southern  United  States. 

Melia  azedarach  iimbraculifera  iSargent.        Umbrella  China-tree. 


86 

SWIETENIA  Jacq. 
Swietenia  mahagoni  Jacq.  Mahogany. 

Kanck.— Florida  keys  (Key  T.argo  and  Elliotts  Key);  Bahamas,  West  Indies, 
southern  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  Peru. 

^AMES  IN  USE. — Mahogany  (Fla.);  Madeira  (Fla.);  Redwood  (Fla.). 

Family  EUFH:0RBIA.CE^E. 
DRYPETES  Vahl. 

IDrypetes  lateriflora  (Swartz)  Urban.  Florida  Plum. 

Drypetes  crocea  Poit. 

Range. — Southern  Florida  ( Biscayne  Bay)  and  several  of  the  southern  keys; 
Bahamas,  Cuba,  San  Domingo,  Jamaica,  Puerto  Rico. 

Names  in  use. — Guiuua  Plum  (Fla.);  Whitewood  (Fla.). 

Drypetes  keyensis  Urban.  G-uiana  Plum. 

Range. — Florida  keys  (Key  West,  Umbrella  Key,  Elliotts  Key). 
Names  in  use. — Guiana  Plum  (Fla.);  Whitewood  (Fla.). 

G-YMNANTHES  Swartz. 

■G-ymnanthes  lucida  Swartz.  Crabwood. 

Sebastiana  lucida  Muell. 

Range. — Coast  of  southern  Florida  (from  Biscayne  Bay  to  the  Marquesas  Keys;; 
Bahamas,  West  Indies. 

Names  in  use. — Crabwood  (Fla.);  Poison  wood  (Fla.). 
HIPPOMANE  Linn. 
Hippomane  mancinella  Linn.  Manchineel. 

Range. — From  the  keys  of  southern  Florida  through  the  Bahamas  and  \\  est  Indies 
to  northern  South  America  and  eastern  and  western  coast  of  Central  America  and 
southern  Mexico. 

Name  in  use. — Manchineel  (Fla.). 

SAPIUM  Browne. 

Sapium  sebiferum  Roxb.  Tallow-tree. 

Stillincjia  sebiferum  Michx. 

Range. — China  and  Japan.     Cultivated  and  naturalized  in  the  Gulf  States. 

Family  OHEIR^NTHODENRE.^. 
FREMONTODENDRON  Coville. 

Fremontodendron  californicum  (Torr.)  Coville.  Fremontia. 

Fremontia  califoknica  Torr. 

Range. — California  (from  Mariposa)  to  Lower  California. 

Names  in  use.— Slippery  Elm  (Cal.);  Silver  Oak  (Gal.);  Leather- 
wood  (Gal.);  Fremontia  (Cal.). 


87 


Family  THE^CE^^E. 
Gordonia  lasianthus  (Linn/ Ellis.  ^       Loblolly  Bay. 

Raxcje. — Coast  region  from  southern  part  of  Vir<;inia  to  Florida  (Cape  Malabar 
and  Cape  Romano)  and  west  in  the  Gulf  region  to  th<^  Mississippi  Kiver. 

Names  in  use. — Loblolly  Bay  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss., 
La.);  Tan  Bay  (Miss.,  Fla.,  La.);  Black  Laurel  (N.  C). 
Gordonia  altainaha  (Marsh.)  Sargent.  Franklinia. 

Gordonia  pubescens  L'Her. 

Range. — At  present  known  onlj-  in  cultivation.  Originally  (17(i5)  found  grovtring 
wild  in  Georgia  (near  Fort  Br^rrington  on  the  Altamaha  River),  but  not  seen  sineo 
1790. 

Family    CA-TsTELL^CE^^i:. 
CANELLA  Browne. 

Canella  winterana  (Linn.)  Gcertn.  Cinnamon-bark. 

Canell  alba  Murr.  in  Linn. 

Range. — Florida  keys 

NA3IES  IN  USE. — Cinnamon  bark  (Fla.);  Wliittnvood;  Wild  Cinna- 
mon. 

Family    A.]>TA.CA.RDIACE_zai;. 
COTINITS  Adans. 

Cotinus  cotinoides  (Kutt.)  Britten.  American  Smoke-tree. 

Ehus  cotinoides  Nutt. 

Range.— Indian  Territory  (Grand  River);  Alabama  (north  of  Tennessee  River  and 
on  southern  slopes  of  Cumberland  Mountains  near  Iluntsville);  eastern  Tennes- 
see (Cheat  Mountain);  Texas  (Medina  River). 

Names  in  use.— Cliittamwoodg;Al^.);y^Yello\v-wood  (Ala.).;  Smoke- 


Wlj^ia^ 


Rhus  metopium  i/inn.  ^  ^ 

Range.— Southern  Florida  (Biscayne  Bay)  and  southtiiT  keys:  Bahamas,  Cuba, 
Jamaica,  Honduras.  , 

Names  in  use. — Poisonwood(Fla.);  Coral  Sumach;  Mountain  Mar.- 
cbineel;  Bumwood;  Hog- Plum;  Doctor  Gum. 

Rhus  hirta  (Linn.)  Sudworth.  Staghom  Sximach. 

Rhus  typhina  Linn. 

Range. — From  New  Brunswick  (through  the  St.  Lawrence  Kiver  Valley)  to  south- 
ern Ontario  and  Minnesota;  south  through  the  Northern  States  and  along  the  Alle- 
gheny Mountains  to  northern  Georgia,  central  Alabama,  and  Mississippi. 

Names  in  use.— Stagborn  Sumacb  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn., 
N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Del.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Miss.,  Mo.,  Mich.,  Wis.,  Ohio,  Ont.); 
Sumacb  pie.,  Vt,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  W.  Va.,  Ark     Ky.,  Ind.,  Wis.);  Virginia 


88 
Rhus  copallina  Linn.  D-warf  Sumach. 

Kaxge. — Xcw^  England  to  Florida  (Manitee  and  Caximbas  Bay),  and  \\v»i  to  Mis- 
souri, Arkansas,  and  Texas  (San  Antonio  River) ;  Cuba. 

]SrA:MES  IN  USE. — Dwarf  Suinacb  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  R.  I.,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  Del., 
Pa.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Kans.) ;  Sumach  (Vt.,  Pa.,  W.  Ya.,  S.  C,  Fla., 
Ga.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  Mo..  Kans.);  Smooth  Sumach;  Mountain 
Sumach  (Vt.,  Tenn.);  Black  Su:;..ich  (Ark.,  Tex.);  Wing-rib  Mountain 
Sumach  (S.  <\);  Common  Sumach  (S.  C). 
Rhus  copallina  leucantha  (Jacq.)  cle  C. 

White-flo-wered  D-warf  Sumach. 

Range. — Texas  (near  New  Brannfels). 

Rhus  copallina  lanceolata  Gray.  Lanceleaf  D-warf  Sumach. 

Range. — Eastern  Texas  (to  Rio  Grande  River). 

Rhus  vernix  Linn.  Poison  Sumach. 

Khus  venenata  de  C. 

Range. — Northern  New  England  to  northern  Georgia  and  Alabama ;  west  to 
northern  Minnesota,  Arkansas,  .and  western  Louisiana. 

Navies  in  use. — Poison  Sumach  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  oS^.  Y., 
N.  J.,  Del.,  KC,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Mo.,  Iowa,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Minn., 
Ohio,  Ont.,  Xebr.);  Poison  Elder  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,is\  Y.,  Del.,  S.  C,  Ga., 
Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Mo.,  >ebr.,  Minn.) ;  Poison  Dogwood  (N.  H.,  Vt.,  ]S".  J., 
Pa.,  D.  C,  Mo.,  Mich.,  Minn.) ;  Dogwood  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  L,  Wis.,  Mich.. 
Iowa,  Nebr.,  Minn.,  La.);  Swamp  Sumach  (R.  L,  N.  Y.,  N.  J..  Tenn.. 
Minn.);  Sumach  (R.L);  Poison  Oak  (La.);  Poison  Ash  (Pa.);  Poison- 
wood  (Tenn.);  Poisontree;  Thunderwood  (Ga.). 

Rhus  integrifolia  (Nutt.)  Benth.  &  Hook.  Western  Sumach. 

Range. — Coast  of  southern  California  (from  Santa  Barbara)  to  southern  Lower 
California  (Magdalena  Bay);  Santa  Barbara  and  Cedros  Islands. 

Family  C YRILLA^CE^E. 

CYRILLA  Linn. 
Cyrilla  racemiflora  Linn.  Iron^vood. 

Range. — Coast  region  from  North  Carolina  to  Florida  (to  latitude  30°  and  on 
southern  keys) ;  inland  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  to  near  Augusta;  west  on 
Gulf  coast  to  Texas  (Neches  River);  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Dominica,  Demerara,  and 
Brazil. 

Names  in  use. — Iron  wood  (S.  C.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.);  Leatherwood 
(Ala.,  Fla.);  He  Huckleberry  (S.  C);  Burnwood;  Burn  wood-bark; 
Firewood  (Ga.);  Burning- wood  (Ga.) ;  Red  Titi  (Fla.) ;  White  Titi. 

CLIFTONIA  Gffirtn.  f. 

Cliftonia  monophylla  (Lam.)  Sargent.  Titi. 

Cliftonia  ligustrina  Sims  ex  Spreng. 

Range. — Coast  region  from  South  Carolina  (Savannah  River)  to  northern  Florida, 
and  west  in  the  Gulf  region  to  eastern  Louisiana. 

Names  in  use. — Titi  (S.  C.,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.);  Buckwheat-tree 
(Fla.,  La.);  Black  Titi  (Fla.);  Iron  wood. 


Family  ^qxjifolia.ce:^e:. 

ILEX  Linn. 
Ilex  opaca  Ait.      -  American  Holly. 

K'angk. — Coast  rof^iou  from  Massachusetts  (Massachusetts  Hay,  near  (jiuiucy)  to 
Fk)n(la  (Mos(inito  Inlet  and  Charlotte  Harbor);  from  southern  Indiana  (through 
Mississippi  River  Valley)  to  the  Gulf,  and  through  Missouri,  Arkaubas,  Louisiana, 
and  eastern  Texas. 

Namks  in  use.— Holly  (R.  I.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Fla., 
Miss.,  La.,  Ark) ;  American  Holly  (Mass.,  K.  L,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J..  Pa., 
Del.,  N.  C,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.) ;  White  Holly  (Va.). 

Ilex  cassine  Linn.  Dahoon  (Holly). 

Ilex  dahoon  Walt. 

liANGK. —  Coast  regiou  from  southern  Vii'ginia  to  Florida  (Biscayue  l>ay  and 
Tampa  Bay) ;  west  ou  the  Gulf  coast  to  western  Louisiana. 

Ilex  cassine  angustifolia  Willd.  Narrov/leaf  Dahoon. 

Ilex  cassine  mytifolia  (Walt.)  Sargent.  Myrtle-leaf  Dahoon. 

Rangk. — North  Carolina  to  Louisiana. 

Xames  in  use. — Dahoon  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.); 
Dahoon  Holly  (K.  O.,  S.  C,  Fla.);  Yaupou  (Fla.). 

Ilex  vomitoria  Ait.  Yaupon  (Holly). 

Ilex  cassine  Walt. 

Range. — Coast  region  from  southern  Virginia  to  Florida  (St.  .Johns  River  and 
Cedar  Keys);  west  ou  the  Gulf  coast  to  southern  Texas  (Matagorda  Bay)  and  to 
western  Texas  (Rio  Blanco  River),  and  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  northward  to 
southern  Arkansas. 

Names  in  use. — Yopon   (K  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Miss.,   Tex.);    Yaupon 
(N.C,  S.C.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.);  Cassena  (N.  C,  S.  C.,  Fla.,  La.);  Cassine 
(La.);  True  Cassena;  Bverg:reen  Casseua;  Cassio-berry  Bush;  Emetic 
Holly  (S.  C). 
Ilex  decidua  Walt.  Deciduous  Holly. 

Range. — From  southern  Virginia  (ranging  from  the  coast  to  the  eastern  hase  of 
the  Appalachian  Mountains)  to  westeru  Florida  :  from  southern  Illinois  to  the  Gulf 
and  tlirough  southwestern  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  eastern  Texas  (Colorado  River). 

Names  in  use. — Holly  (Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo.);  Bearberry  (Miss.);  Possum 
Haw  (Fla.). 
Ilex  monticola  Gray.  Mountain  Holly. 

Range. — From  New  York  (Catslcill  Mountains  and  Cattaraugus  Connty)  south- 
ward in  the  mountains  (and  in  Pennsylvania  as  far  east  as  Northampton  Comity)  to 
northern  Alabama.  Arborescent  chietly  in  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  and  eastern  Tennessee  (Great  Smoky  Mountains). 

Family  OEL-A^STH^CE^El. 

EVONYMUS  Linn. 

Evonymus  atropurpureus  J  acq.  Waahoo. 

Range. — From  western  New  York  through  Michigan  to  Nebraska  (and  in  Montana 
on  upper  Missouri  River) ;  south  to  northern  Florida,  soutliern  Arkansas,  and  Indian 
Territory. 

Xames  in  use.— F>urning  Bush  (K.  1.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Md., 
N.  C,  S.  C,  Miss.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  Ohio,  111.,  lud.,  Iowa,  Kaus.,  Nebr.^ 


90 

Mich.);  Waahoo  (X.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Miss.,  Ky., 
Ark.,  Mo.,  Nebr..  111.,  Iowa,  Kaus.,  Ohio,  Ind.);  Spiiidle-tree  (R.  I., 
Del.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  HI.);  Arrow  wood  (Miss.,  La.,  111.,  Mo.):  Strawberry- 
tree  (N.  Y.);  Strawberry  Bush  (Tenn.);  "Moses  in  the  Burning  Bush" 
^N.  J.);  Bleeding  Heart  (N.  0.);  Indian  Arrow  (Ind.). 

GYMINDA  Sargent. 

G-yminda  grisebachii  Sargent.  Gyminda. 

Myginda  pallens  Smith  ex  Sargent. 

Range. — Islands  ol' southern  Florida  (from  Marquesas  to  Upper  Metacombe  Key); 
Cuba,  and  Puerto  Kico. 

Names  in  use. — False  Boxwood  (Fla.);  Gyminda. 
Gyminda  grisebachii  glaucifolia  (Griseb.)  Sudworth. 

Pale  Gyminda. 

Range. — Cnba. 

SCH^FFERIA  Jacq. 
Schaefferia  frutescens  Jacq.  Florida  Boxwoocl. 

RAXfJi':. — Islands  olsoutlieru  Florida  (vicinity  Caloos  River,  and  from  Metacombe 
Key  eastward,  and  on  Reef  Keys) ;  Bahamas,  West  Indies,  Aenezuela. 

Names  in  use. — Yellow- wood  (Fla.);  Boxwood  (Fla.). 
Family  ^CER^CE^^. 

ACER  Linn. 
Acer  spicatum  Lam.  Mountain  Maple. 

Range. — From  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  River  to  northern  Minnesota  and  region  of 
the  Saskatchewan  River;  south  through  the  Northern  Mates  (in  Michigan  down  to 
Eaton  County)  and  along  the  Appalachian  Mountains  to  northern  Georgia. 

Names  in  use. — Mountain  Maple  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  K 
J.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  S.  C.,  Mich.,  ^linu.);   Moose  Maple  (Vt^;I|OW  Maple 
(Tenn.) ;  Water  Maple  (Ky.).        IT       ##  +^  ^fewf- 
Acer  pennsylvanicum  Lmn.  ^▼'•Ci'^-V  V*'^;    Striped  Maple. 

liANUE. — From  l^iiehec  (Ha- Ha  Bay,  on  Saguenay  Ri^T^r)  westwar<l  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Ontario  and  islands  of  Lake  Huron  to  northeastern  Minn .sota; 
southward  into  the  Northern  and  North  Atlantic  States  (in  Michigan  tjhfeoscoi|nJion 
County)  and  along  the  Appalachian  ^lountaius  to  northern  G<'orgia.  2^1MKV 'lA^^i/V 

Names  in  use. — Striped  Maple  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  K.  1.,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  Pa., 
N.  J.,  S.  C.,  Ga.,  Ky.jMich.,  Minn.,  Ont.);  Moosewood  (Me.,  Vt.,  N  H., 
R.  I.,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  Mich.,  Minn.);  Xorthern  Maple  (Minn.); 
Striped  Dogwood  (N.  Y.,  N.  0.);  Mountain  Alder  (N.  C);  Whistlcwood 
(Mich.);  Goose  foot  Maple.  ^rh^  L§ 

Acer  macrophyllum  Pursh.  ^i^^^v^f^^wf^^'JI^KA  Maple. 

RaXge. — From  the  coast  region  of  Alaska  (south  of  latitude  .55"),  British  Colum- 
bia, and  islands  southward  through  Washington  an<l  Oregon  (west  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains)  and  California  (coast  ranges  and  western  slopes  of  Siena  Nevada  Mojiin- 
tains  to  San  Bernardino  Mountains  and  Hot  Si)riug  Valley  in  San  Diego  County). 

Names  in  use. — Bigleaf  Maple  (Oreg.),  Broad-leaved  Maple  (cen- 
tral Cal.;  Greg.,  Willamette  Valley);  Oregon  Maple  (Oreg.,  Wash.); 

(Cal.). 


7 0-7  ail 

White  Maple^Oreg.,jVash.);  Mauie  (Ca 


Acer  circinatum  Puisli. 


Vine  Maple. 


Range. — From  the  coast  region  of  British  Columbia  south  through  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  Calilbrnia  (to  Mendocino  County). 


Names  in  use. — Vine  Maple  ((;entral  and  northern  Cal. 
Willamette  Valley) ; 


Orearou — 


-za's^v-i'^^er^ 


Acer  glabrum  Ton 

Range. — From  Fnitish  Coluiiil>ia;^^l§tWar(l  and  southward  over  the  mountains  of 
the  West  to  California  (oiv^ierra  Nefvada  Mountains  to  Yosemite  Valley),  Colorado 
^eastern  slopes  of  RockyiMountains),  eastern  New  Mexico,  and  western  Arizona. 

Names  in  use. — Dwarf  Maple  (Oreg.,  Utah,  Cal.,  Colo.);  Mountain 
Maple  (Colo.,  Mont.) ;  Soft  Maple  (Utah) ;  Shrubby |VIaple  (Utah) ;  Bark 
Maple  (Idaho);  Maple  (Moi 

Acer  saccharum  Marsh. 

Acer  saccharinum  wang 

Range. — From  southern  Newfoundland  (along  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Saguenay 
rivers.  Lake  St.  John,  and  northern  borders  of  Great  Lakes;  to  Lake  of  the  Woods 
and  Minnesota;  south  (through  the  Northern  States  and  on  the  jVllegheny  Mountains) 
to  northern  Georgia  and  western  Florida;  west  to  eastern  IfelJrasJIa,  eastern  Kansas 
and 


tArt*M 


kL 


NAivn^!?  m^rsE.— iSugarflMaple  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mas*,  E.  I.,  «Jonn., 
N.  Y.,  N.  J.,^  Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Ya.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  La.,  Ky.,  Mo., 
Ohio,  111.,  lud.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Ncbr.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  Wis.,  Ont.);  Hard 
Maple  (Vt.,  E.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Va.,  xlla.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Kans.,  Nebr,, 
HI.,  lud.,  Iowa,  Mich.,  Ohio,  Minn.,  Ont.) ;  Sugar  tree  (Me.,  Vt.,  E.  I., 
Pa.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Ohio,  Kans.); 
Eock  Maple  (Me.,  Vt.,  N.  H.,  Conn.,  Mass.,  E.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Tenn.,  111., 
Mich.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Wis.,  Minn.,  Ont.);  Black  Maple  (Fla.,  Ky.,  N.  C); 
Maple  (S.  C). 

Acer  saccharum  nigrum  (Michx.  f.)  Britton.  Black  Maple. 

Acer  saccharinum  Wang. 

Range. — From  Vermont  (Lake  Champlain)  to  Minnesota,  eastern  Kansas,  and 
southwestern  Arkansas;  southward  (west  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains)  to  northern 
Alahama  and  Mississippi  (Chickasaw  River). 

Names  in  use. — Black  Sugar  Maple  (Mich.,  Mo.);  Black  Maple 
(Mich.,  Iowa);  Hard  Maple  (Minn.). 

VARIETY    DISTIXGUISHEU    IN    CULTIN'ATION. 

Acer  saccharum  nigruni  moiiumentale  (Temple)  Sudw. 

Acer  saccharum  barbatum  (Michx.)  Trelease. 

Raxgp:. — Nearly  the  same  as  the  jjn^ceding,  but  itiHufficiently  known. 

Acer  saccharum  leucoderme  (Small)  Sudworth. 

Whitebark  Maple, 

Range. — North  Oarolinii  to  (Jeor;;ia  and  Alabama. 

Acer  saccharum  floridanum  (('hapui.)  Small  ^^  Heller. 

Florida  Maple. 


92 
AoER  SACCHARINUM  Wang",  var.  floeidanum  Chapm. 

Rangk. — From  western  Florida  through  southern  Alabama  (to  ceutral  prairie 
region)  to  Texas  (Cibolo  Elver)  and  into  Mexico  (Sierra  Madre  Mountains  in  \uevo 
Leon). 

Acer  saccharum  grandidentatum  (Nutt.)  Sud worth. 

Large-tooth  Maple. 
Acer  grandidentatum  (Nutt. !  inss.)  in  Torr.  «Si  Gr. 

Range. — Montana  (head  waters  of  Colnmbia  River);  Utah  (Wasatch  .Mountains); 
southern  Arizona  (ilnachuaca  Mountains  and  others);  New  Mexico  (Monijollou 
Mountains);  western  Texas  (Guadaloupe  Mountains);  Mexico  (mountains  of  Coa- 
huila). 

NAME.S  IN  USE. — Western  Sugar  Maple;  Hard  Maple  (Utah);  Large- 
toothed  Maple. 

Acer  saccharinum  Linu.  Silver  Maple. 

Acer  dasycarpum  Ehr. 

Range. — From  New  Brunswick  (St.  Johns  River)  to  western  Florida;  west  to 
southern  Ontario,  through  Michigan  to  eastern  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas  (Blue 
River),  and  Indian  Territory. 

NA31ES  IN  USE. — Silver  Maple  (Me.,  Vt,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  K  J.,  Pa., 
Del.,Va.,  W.Va.,  K  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Miss.,  Ky.,  Ohio,  111.,  Ind.,  Mo.,  Kans., 
Nebr.,  Iowa,  Mich.,  Minn.,  S.  Dak.) ;  Soft  Maple  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  11. 1., 
N.  y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  W.  Va.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  Oliio,  3Ii(h.,  Ont., 
III.,  Ind.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Wis.,  Minn.,  S.  Dak.);  White  Maple  (Me., 
Vt,  K.  I.,  K.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La., 
Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Iiid.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Minn.) ;  River  Maple  (Me.,  X.  II.,  R.  L, 
W.Va.,  Minn.);  Silver-leaved  Maple  (Del.,  N.J.) ;  Water  Maple  (Pa., 
W.Va.);  Greek  Maple  (W.  Va.);  Swamp  Maple  (W.  Va.,  Md.). 

VAKIETIES    DISTINGUISHED    IN    CULTIVATION. 

Acer  saccharinum  pendulum  (Xich.)  Sudw.  'Weeping  Silver  Maple. 

Acer  saccharinum  aureo-variegatum.(Nich. )  Sudw. 

Variegated  Silver  Maple. 
Acer  saccharinum  wierii  (Pax)  Sudw.  Cutleaf  Silver  Maple. 

Acer  saccharinum  dissectifolium  Sudw. 
Acer  saccharinum  lutescefts  (Pax)  Sudw. 
Acer  saccharinum  no-oAn  (EUw.  &  Barjfc)  ^idw.  I  Crig^a^ejffJBilver  Maple. 


Acer  rubrunx  Linn.i^JcBtPtF'  ■^^rT^KflM^    V^»  TRed  Maple. 

RaNcje. — From  New  liruuswuk,  C^uebec,  and  ()nt;irio  (latitude  49  )  to  Florida 
(Caloosa  and  Indian  rivers);  west  to  Lake  of  the  Wood,  eastern  D.akota  and 
Nebraska,  Indian  Territory,  and  Texas  (Trinity  Kiver). 

Names  in  use. — Red  Maple  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Gonn., 
N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  G.,  S.  G.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La., 
Tex.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Ohio,  Ont..  Iowa.,  Wis.,  Nebr.);  Swamp  Maple 
( Vt.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  Gonn.,  R.  L,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  N.  G.,  S.  G.,  Fla., 
Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  Ont,  Minn.);  Soft  Maple  (Vt.,  Mass., 
N.  Y.,  Va.,  Miss.,  Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Obio,  Ont.,  ISIich.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Minn.) : 
Water  Maple  (Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  Mo.);  White  Majde  (Me.,  N.  H.); 
Shoe-peg  Maple  (W.  Va.);  Erable  (La.);  Ah-weh-liot-kwah  =  "Red 
Flower"  (Onondaga  Indians,  N.  Y.);  Scarlet  Maple  (Tex.). 


93 

Acer  rubruni  druminondii  (Hook.  &  Am.)  Sargent. 

Drummond  Maple. 

Rangk. — Soiitheru  Georgia  aud  Alabama  (coast  plain),  sotithweslcni  Tennessee 
I  (Covington),  western  Louisiana,  southern  Arkansas,  eastern  Texas. 


VARIETY    DISTINGITISHKD    IN    (niLTIVATION. 


Acer  rubrum  sanguiueuni  (Sjiacb)  Pax 


Acer  negundo  Linn.  ^--lT/tVY^PiJ^VfKC^ 'v^^**'^    Boxelder. 

Xegundo  aceroides  Moeuch. 

Kange. — Yermout  (Lake  Champlain  aud  Winooski  River),  New  York  (Cayuga 
Lake),  eastern  Penusjlvania,  and  south  to  Florida  (Hernando  County);  northwest- 
ward to  Winnipeg  (Dogs  Head  Lake  aud  along  southern  branch  of  the  Saskatche- 
wan River),  to  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rockj-  Mountains  (in  British  America),  to 
Montana  (Rocky  Mountains),  Utah  (Wasatch  Mountains),  western  Texas,  New  Mex- 
ico, and  eastern  Arizona. 

Names  in  use. — Boxelder  (Vt.,  Mass.,  K.  I.,  Del.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa., 
Va.,  W.  Va.,N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  Ariz., 
X.  Mex.,  Mont.,  111.,  Ind.,  Wis.,  Ohio,  Mich.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  N.  Dak., 
S,  Dak.,  Minn.);  Ash  leaved  Maple  (R.  I.,  Mass.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va., 
S.  C,  La.,  Tex.,  111.,  Wis.,  Iowa,  Ont.,  Kans.,  Xebr.,  Mont.,  N.  Dak.. 
:.Iicli.,  Minn.);  Cnt-leaved  Maple  (Colo.);  IS^egiindo  Maple  (III.);  Red 
iiiver  Maple  (N.  Dak.);  Three-leaved  Maple  (Pa.);  Black  Ash  (Tenn.); 
Stinking  Ash  (S.  C.) ;  Sugar  Ash  (Fla.) ;  Water  Ash  (Dakotas). 

^Acer  negundo  californicum  (T.  &  Gr.)  Sargent. 

California  Boxelder. 
j^EGUNDO  CALIFORNICUM  Torr.  «&  Gr. 
Ran'GE. — Southeru  California  (valley  lower  Sacrameuto  River;  valleys  and  coast 
ranges  from  San  Francisco  Bay  to  about  latitude  35^ ;  western  slopes  San  Bernardino 
Mountains). 

Names  injuse. — Box  Elder  dOal.)  j  Mapk  (CaI/i:  Ff 


Acer  negundo  variegatum  Kuutze 
Acer  negundo  angustissimum  (Pax)  Sudw. 
Acer  negundo  crispifolium  Sudw. 
Acer  negundo  violaceum  (Koch)  Dipp. 


Family  HIP»I>OCA^©T^]Sr^CE^E. 

-ffiSCULUS  Linn. 

.Sisculus  glabra  Willd.  Ohio  Buckeye. 

Range. — From  Pennsylvania  (western  slopes  Allegheny  Mountains)  to  northern 
Alabama  (Tennessee  River  Valley  and  mountains)  aud  west  to  southern  Iowa,  central 
Kansas,  aud  Indian  Territory. 

iSTAMES  IN  USE. — Ohio  Buckeye  (Miss.,  (hd.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  Ohio);  Buck- 
eye (Pa.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  IIL,  Ind.,  Ohio,  Iowa,  Kans.);  Fetid  Buckeye  (W. 
Va.);  Stinking  Buckeye  (Ala.,  Ark.);  American  Horse  Chestnut  (Pa.). 


Isculus  octandra  Marsh.]  ^^-       ^   /        t  Prellb-wa  Buckeye. i 


M/2 

Eko^  ^sculus 

iM/  yEsCULIS  FLAVA  Ait  ^  , w^         ^  » 

]/i  RaN(;e. — From  renusylvaniii'^rf^lle<;heyy  County  aud  al^ig  the  .vt^uliciiy  Momi- 

~    ^^^  tains  to  Georgia  (Augusta)  audnortlierii  Alabama  (inouiitaiiis) ;  wcstwnrd  tosoutlieni 
Qf  Iowa,  Indian  Territory,  and  western  Texas  (upper  Cibolo  River,  near  Hoerne). 

Names  in  use. — Buckeye  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ky,); 
Sweet* Buckeye  ( W.  Va.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  Ind.) ;  Yellow  Buckeye  (S.  C, 
Ala.);  LargeBuckeye  (Tenn.);  Big  Buckeye  (Tex., Tenu.);  Ohio  Buck- 

ft^  eye  (Pa.,  cult.) 

.Cir    ..aJsculus  octandra  hybrida  (de  C.)  Sargent.  Purple  Buckeye. 

TiC^X.     ^5^^fULUS  FLAVA  Ait.  var  puri'URAScens  Gray. 

Range. — From  West  V'irginia  soutliward  (on  Allegheny  Mountains);  Texas. 

'fM£  ^sculus  californica  (Spach)  Nutt.  California  Buckeye. 

O/f  IvANCE. — California   (from  Sacramento  River  in  Mendoeiuo  County  along  coast 

M^jfjt  ranges  to  San  Luis  Obispo  County;  western  footiiills  of  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  to 
j^'  northern  slopes  of  Tejon  Pass  in  Kern  CouI^.y ;  Antelt^  Valiej'  of  San  (iabriel 
'  Mountains  in  Los  Angeles  County),   '^ftfl ./>#i<?*-tf      -C*-**^' 

AMES  INCISE. — California  Buckgve  (('al.);  Jl^orse  Chestnut  (Cal.). 


Ungnadia  speciosa  Endl.  Texas  Buckeye. 

Raxce. — From  Texas  (Trinity  River)  to  New  Mexico  (Organ  Mountains),  and 
southward  into  Mexico  (Sierra  Madre  Mountains  in  Nuevo  Leon  and  mountains 
of  Chihuahua). 

Names  in  use. — Spanish  P.uckeye  (Tex.);  Texas  Buckeye  (Tex.). 

SAPINDUS  Linn. 
Sapindus  saponaria  Linn.  Soapberry. 

Range. — Southern  Florida  (Cape  Sable,  shores  and  islands  of  Caximbas  Ray  and 
Biscayne  Bay)  and  keys  (Key  Largo  and  Elliotts  Key);  West  Indies  and  Venezuela. 
Xames  in  use. — False  Dogwood  (Fla) ;  Soapberry  ( I'Ma). 

Sapindus  marginatus  Willd.  Wild  China. 

Range. — From  Georgia  (Savannah  River)  to  Florida  (St.  Johns  River  on  the  east 
coast  and  on  the  west  coast  from  Cedar  Keys  to  Manatee  River) ;  Alabama  (escaped 
from  cultivation  and  running  wild  near  Mobile) ;  from  western  l^ouisiana  to  southern 
Arkansas  (Washita  River)  and  southern  Kansas,  through  Texas  to  southern  New 
Mexico,  southern  Arizona,  and  into  northern  Mexico. 

Names  in  use. — Soapberry  (Fla,,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.) ;  Wild  China  (Fla., 
La.,  Tex.);  Chinaberry  (N.  Mex.). 


EXOTHEA  Macfadyen. 


Ink-w^ood. 


Exothea  paniculata  (Juss.)  liadlk. 
Hypelate  paniculata  Camb. 

R.vxGE. — Southern    Florida    (from    Mos(|uit()    Inlet   to   the   southern    keys);  San 
Domingo,  Cuba,  and  .lamaica. 

Names  in  use. — Inkwood  (Fla.)j  Iron  wood. 


•  95 

HYPELATE  Browne. 
Hypelate  trifoliata  Swartz,  White  Ironwood. 

Kanhk. — Floridii    keys   (Upper   Metacombe   and    Umbrella    keys);   Jamaica   aii(}-»- 
(.'uba. 

Name  in  usk. — White  Ironwood  (Fla.). 

Family   RHA^IMN^CE^E. 

REYNOSIA  Griseb. 

Reynosia  latifolia  Griseb.  Red  Ironwood. 

Kaxoe. — Soutlieru  Florida  (Marquesas  Islands  to  Biscayne  Baj');    Cuba,  Virgiu 

and  Bahama  islands. 

Names  in  use. — Ked  Ironwood  (Fla.);  Darling  Plum  (Fla.). 

CONDALIA  Cav. 
Condalia  obovata  Hook.  Blue-wood. 

Range. — Western  Texas  (Matagorda  Bay  to  the  Rio  Grande  River)  and  north- 
|^#astdrn  Mexico. 

>v  Names  in  use. — Bluewood  (Tex.);   Logwood  (Tex.);   Purple  Haw 
(Tex.). 

RHAMNIDIUM  Keissek. 

Rhamnidium  ferreum  (Valil)  Sargent.  Black  Iron-wood. 

Condalia  ferrea  Griseb. 

Range. — Southern  Florida  (coast   from  Cape  Canaveral   and  keys  to  Biscayne 
Bay) ;  St.  Croix,  San  Domingo,  St.  Thomas,  Puerto  Rico,  and  Jamaica. 
Name  in  use. — Black  Ironwood  (Fla.). 

RHAMNUS  Linn. 
Rhamnus  crocea  Nutt.  Evergreen  Buckthorn. 

Raxge. — California  (upper  Sacramento  River,  west  of  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains, 
to  latitude  29^)  to  Lower  California  (Guadalupe  Islands). 

Rhamnus  crocea  insularis  (Greene)  Sargent. 

Range. — Southern  California  (Cedros  and  Santa  Barbara  islands  and  adjacent 
mainland). 

Rhamnus  pirifolia  Greene. 

Kaxgk. — <  )tt'  coast  Houthern  California  (Santa  Cruz  Islands). 

Rhamnus  caroliniana  Walt.  Yellow  Buckthorn. 

Range. — From  New  York  (Long  Island)  to  Florida,  and  west  (through  the  Ohio 
River  Valley)  to  caster u  Nebraska,  eastern  Kansas,  and  eastern  Texas. 

Names  in  use. — Indian  Cherry  (W.  Va.,  N.  C,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex., 
Ark.,  Nebr.);  Buckthorn  (Ark.,  Iowa,  Nebr.);  Alder  Buckthorn  (Tex., 
Nebr.);  Yellow-wood  (xUa,,  Fla.,  La.);  Stinkwood  (La.);  Bog  Birch 
(Minn.);  Stink  Berry  (Nebr.):  Stink  Cherry  (Nebr.):  Carolina  Buck- 
thorn (S.  C,  Pa.);  Polecat-tree  (.Tex.);  Polecat- wood  (Ark.);  Brittle- 
wood  'Ark.). 


Rhamnus  purshiana  de  C.  Cascara  Buckthorn. 

IJange. — From  Piiget  Sound  soutliward  into  Lower  California;  eastward  through 
northern  Washington  to  Idaho  (Bitter  Koot  Mountains),  Montana  (Flat  Head  Lake); 
eastern  slopes  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains;  mountains  of  Colorado  and  western  T»'xas. 

Na:vies  in  use. — Shittimwood  (Orej?.,  Idaho,  Wash.);  Caseara 
Sa^ada  (Cal.,  Oreg.);  Be.iiberry  (Oieg.,  Idaho,  Wash.);  Bearwood 
(Oreg.);  Yellow- wood  (Oreg.);  Buckthorn  (Idaho);  Pigeon-berry 
(Idaho);  Oregon  Bearwood  (Oreg.,  Wash.);  Coffee  berry  (Cal.);  Wild 
Coffee-bush  (Cal.) ;  Western  Coffee  (Oreg.,  Cal.) ;  Bayberry  (Oreg.,  Cal.) ; 
Wild  Coffee  (Cal.);  California  Coffee  (Cal.). 

CEANOTHUS  Linn. 
Ceanothus  thyrsiflorus  Esch.  Blue  Myrtle. 

Kaxgi;. — Western  California  (from  Mendocino  County  to  San  Luis  Key  Eiver). 

Names  in  use. — Blue  Myrtle;  California  Lilac  (Cal.);*  Wild  Lilac 
(Cal.);  Blue  Blossom  (Cal.). 

Ceanothus  arboreus  Greene.  Tree  Myrtle. 

Range. — Off  coast  of  southern  California  (Santa  Catalina,  Santa  Cruz,  Santa  Kosa 
Islands). 

COLUBRINA  Brongn. 

Colubrina  recimata  (L'Her.)  Brongn.  Naked-wood. 

IJaX(.k. — Southern  Florida  (Umbrella  Key,  north  end  of  Key  Largo,  and  islands 
south  of  Elliotts  Key);  Jamaica,  San  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  Cuba,  St.  Croix,  Haiti, 
Virgin  and  Bahama  islamls. 

Names  in  use. — Naked- wood  (Fla.);  Soldierwood  (Fla.). 

TILIA  Linn. 
Tilia  americana  Linn.  BassTvood. 

IvAXi.i:. — New  lirunswick  to  Virginia  and  (along  Allegheny  Mountains;  to  Georgia 
and  Alabama  (mountains);  west  (in  Canada)  to  Lake  Superior  (eastern  shores)  and 
o  Lake  Winnipeg  (southern  shores)  and  Assiniboine  River  (in  United  States),  to 
eastern  Dakota,  eastern  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Indian  Territory,  and  eastern  Texas. 

Navies  in  use. — Basswood  (Me.,N.  H.,Vt.,  ILL,  Mass.,  Conn., N.Y., 
N.  J.,  Del.,  ]»a.,  W.  Va.,  D.C,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ark.,  Ky., 
Ill,,  Ind.,  Iowa,  Wis.,  Mich.,  Ohio,  Ont.,  Nebr.,  Kans.,  Minn.,  N.  Dak.); 
American  Linden  (Me.,  N.  H.,  K.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Del.,  N.  C,  Miss.,  Ohio, 
111.,  Nebr.,  N.  Dak.,  Ont.,  Minn.) ;  Linn  (Pa.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  Ala.,  La.,  111., 
Ind.,  Ohio,  Mo.,  Iowa.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Wis.,  S.  Dak.);  Linden  (Vt., 
R.  I.,  Pa.,  W.  Va.,  Nebr.,  Minn  );  Limetree  (K.  I.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala., 
Miss.,  La.,  111.);  Whitewood  (Vt.,  W.  Va.,  Ark.,  Minn.,  Ont.);  Beetree 
(Vt.,  W.  Va.,  Wis.);  Black  Limetree  (Tenn.);  Smooth-leaved  Limetree 
(Tenn.);  White  Lind  (W.  Va.);  Wickup  (Mass.);  Yellow  Basswood 
(Ind.);  Lein  (Ind.). 

Tilia  pubescens  Ait.  Do-wny  Bass^vood. 

Tilia  Americana  3  pubescens  Loud. 

Range. — New  York  (Long  Island — swamp  in  Wading  River,  Suffolk  County); 
coast  of  Nyrth  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia;  northern  Florida,  Louisiana, 
Texas  (Rio  ]>lauro  Rivcr^.     Range  insufficiently  known. 

Name  in  use.— Wahoo  (Fla.). 


97 

Tilia  pubescens  leptophylla  ^  ent.     Thinleaf  Downy  Bassvrood. 

Range. — Lnaisiaua;  local.        M  §»■  I        i   M 

TUia  heterophylla  Veiit.P-*<*<l  t^U(>f.   "^^J^^hite  Basswood. 

IjANiiK  — Fio:n  Pennsylvania  (tbr()ugli  tlu'  Allej'lu'iiy  Moiinxirins)  to  western  and 
central  Florida  (Lake  Charm  in  Orange  Connty)  and  Alabama  (Tennessee  Kiver 
valley  to  central  luairie  region) ;  west  to  soutlnrn  Indiana  and  Illinois,  Kentiicky 
and  Tennessee  (to  Nashville). 

Names  in  use. —  VVbite  Kasswood  (Ind.,  Ala.);  WaLoo  (Ga.,  Fla.); 
Wild  Liiideii;  Smooth-fruited,  White-leaved  Liinetree  (Tenn.);  Large- 
leaved  Limetree  (Tenii.);  Silverleaf  Poplar  (Ky.);  Cottonwood  (Ky.); 
Lin  LliuL.  Teiiii.L  .  /D /) 

Family  C^^CTA^CE^rE. 

CEREUS  Mill. 

Cereusgiganteus  Engelm.  Giant  Cactus. 

RangkT— C^ntrirriuHl  southern  Arizona  (from  Hill  Williams  River  to  the  San 
Pedro  River)  and  southward  into  Mexico  (Sonora). 

Names  in  use. — Giaut  Caotus  (N.  Mex.,  Ariz.);  Sahuara  (Ariz.):^ 
Saguaro  (Ariz.).  jtL*^ 

Cereus  thurberi  Eiigelru.  Thurber  Cactus.   /^^ 

R.v.NuE. — Southwestern  Arizona;  Mexico  (Sonora);  Lower  California.  ^'"M 

Names  in  use. — Pitahaya  (Mex.);  Pitahaya  dulce  (Hex.). 
Cereus  schottii  Engelm.  Schott  Cactus.'^ 

R.\XGK. — Southern  Arizona;  Mexico  (Sonora);  Lower  California.  ^ 

Names  in  use, — Ziua.    Sina,    Sinita,    Hombre    viejo,    and   Cabezi 

viejo  (Ariz.,  Mex.).  \ 

OPUNTIA^  Mill. 

Opuntia  fulgida  Engelm.  Cholla. 

Range.  —  From  southern  Nevada  (Cottonwood  Springs)  through  Arizona  (south 
of  Colorado  plateau  in  Pima,  Maricopa.  Pinal,  and  Cochise  counties)  into  Mexico" 
(Sonora).  and  Lower  California.  ^^l#l 

Opuntia  fulgida  mammillata  (Scott)  Coult.  ''^^^>l| 

Range. — Through  southern  Arizona  (southern  loothills  of  Santa  Catalina  Moun- 
tains, etc.)  into  Mexico  (Sonora). 


AW 


■  Although  several  species  of  Opuntias  have  long  been  known  to  be  of  tree-lik^ 
form  and  dimensions,  these  arborescent  species  have  usually  not  been  considered 
strictly  trees.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  they  should  be  regarded  as  true  trees, 
both  from  their  tree-like  form,  and  also  from  their  truly  woody  internal  structure. 
Prof.  J.  W  Tourney,  of  the  University  of  Arizona,  who  has  conducted  many  critical 
studies  on  southwestern  Cactaceie,  writes  the  following  concerning  one  of  the  tree 
Opuntias: 

"  The  reticulated  wood  is  used  to  some  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  light  furni- 
ture,, fancy  articles,  canes,  picture  frames,  etc.  A  factory  wa.s  established  in  Salt 
River  Valley  (Arizona)  some  three  years  ago  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing 
articles  trom  this  wood." 

For  excellent  illustrations  of  the  general  appearance  of  these  trees,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  following  articles  by  Professor  Toumey :  Opuntia  fnlgida,  Garden  and 
Forest.  Vlll,  324,  f.  4.5,  189.5;  Opuntia  arborescena,  Garden  and  Forest,  IX,  2,  f.  1,  1896. 


Opuntia  versicolor  Kiigelm.' 

Range. — Southern  Arizona  (foothills  and  low  niounrams). 

Opuntia  sponsior  (Eiigelm.) Tourney .^ 

KaX(;k.— Sontbeni  Arizona.     Hange  not  yet  perfectly  known. 

Opuntia  sponsior  neomexicana  Toiiniey.- 

J\AXGK. — Sontiiciii  Arizona. 

Family  KHIZOI^HOKA.CE^E. 

RHIZOPHORA  Linn. 
Rhizophora  mangle  l>inn.  Mangrove. 

Ran<;k.— Southern  coast  of  Florida  (Mosciuito  Inlet  and  Cedar  Keys  to  southern 
islaud.s);  Mississippi  delta;  Texas  coast;  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  Mexico; 
Lower  California;  from  Central  America  aloufj  northern  and  eastern  coast  of  South 
America  to  the  limits  of  the  tropics;  Bermndas,  Bahamas,  West  Indies;  Galapagos 
Islands. 

Name  in  use. — \[any:rove  (Fla.). 

Family  INIYRT^CE^E., 
ANAMOMIS  (iriseb. 

Anamomis  dichotonia  (Poir.)  Sargeut.  Naked  Stopper. 

Eugenia  dichotoma  de  C. 

Range. — Florida  coast  (Mosquito  Inlet  to  Cape  Canaveral  on  the  east,  and  on  the 
west  Caloosa  River  to  Cape  Romano;  Key  West,  Biscayne  Bay);  West  Indies. 

Names  in  use. — Naked- wood  (FIh.);  Naked  Stopper. 

CHYTRACULIA  Browne. 

Chytraculia  chytraculia  (Linn.)  Sudworth.  Stopper. 

Calypthanthes  (CHYTRACULIA  Swart/. 
Range.— Florida  (Lake  Worth;    Key  West,  Key    Largo;    Biscayne   Bay);    West 
Indies  and  southern  Mexico. 

Chytraculia  chytraculia  genuina  (Berg.)  Sndw. 
Chytraculia  chytraculia  ovalis  (Berg.)  Sudw. 
Chytraculia  chytraculia  trichotoma  (Berg.)  Sudw. 
Chytraculia  chytraculia  pauciflora  (Berg.)  Sudw. 
Chytraculia  chytraculia  zuzygium  (Linn.)  Sudw. 

EUGENIA  Liun. 
Eugenia  buxifolia  (Swartz)  Willd.  Gurgeon  Stopper. 

Range.— Florida  coast  (on  the  east,  Cape  Canaveral  to  .southern  key;  and  on  the 
west,  Caloosa  River  to  Cape  Sable). 

'  In  Coulter,  Contr.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.,  Ill,  452, 1896. 
2Bot.  Gaz..  XXV,  119, 1898. 


99 
Eugenia  monticola  (Swartz)  de  C.  White  Stopper. 

l^ANGE. — Florida  coast  St.  .lohus  Kiver  to  Key  Lai-jLjo,  Key  West,  rpper  Metacnmbe 
Key,  Klliotts  Key);  West  Imlies. 

Na:mes  in  use. — White  Stopper  (Fla.);  Stopper  (Fla.). 

Eugenia  procera  (Swartz)  Poir.  Red  Stopper. 

Ka.xgk. — Florida  keys  (Key  West  aii<l  Tmbrella  Key);  Sau  Domingo,  ("iiba, 
.laiiiaiea,  Santa  Cruz,  Martinique. 

Names  in  use. — Red  Stopper  (Fla.);  Spiceberry  (Fla.). 

Eugenia  garberi  Sargent.  Garber  Stopper. 

Eugenia  procera  Sargeut. 

Kangk. — Florida  (hammoek,  tbrec-loniths  mile  east  of  montli  of  Miami  Kiver ;  (  He 
Rhodes  Key  and  Elliotts  Key;  Bahamas  (one;,  New  Providence  Island,  West  Indies 
(Antigua). 

Familv  0O]MBTlETA^CE..E. 

TERMINALIA  Benth.  &  Hook. 

Terminalia  buceras  (Browne)  Benth.  &  Hook.  Black  Olivetree. 

Range. — Sontheru  Florida  (Elliotts  Key);  West  Indies,  coast  Caribbean  Sea.  and 
Bay  of  Panama. 

CONOCARPUS  Linn. 
Conocarpus  erecta  Linn.  Florida  Buttonvrood. 

Range. — Coast  of  simtbern  Florida  (Cape  CanaA*eral  and  Cedar  Keys  to  sDuthern 
islands  West  Indies);  Central  and  Sonth  America;  Galapagos  Islands;  east  coast  of 
Africa. 

Names  in  use. — Buttonwood  (Fla.). 
Conocarpus  erecta  arborea  de  C. 
Conocarpus  erecta  procumbens  (Linn.)  de  C. 
Conocarpus  erecta  sericea  de  C. 

LAG-UNCULARIA  G^rtn.  f. 
Laguncularia  raceuiosa  (Linn.)  Gii?rtn.  f.  White  Buttonwood- 

Range. — Coast  of  southern  Florida  (Cape  Canaveral  and  Cedar  Keys  to  southern 
islands);  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Central  and  South  America,  and  western  Africa. 

Names  in  use. — White  Battonwood  (Fla.);  White  Mangrove  (Fla.)j 
Buttonwood  (Fla.). 

Family  ^^RA^LIA^CE^E. 

ARALIA  Linn. 
Aralia  spinosa  Linn.  Angelic  a- tree. 

Range. — From  Pennsylvania  (Allegheny  Monntains  in  Clearlield,  Cambria.  West- 
moreland, and  Fayette  counties)  to  Florida,  and  to  southern  Indiana,  southeastern 
Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  eastern  Texas. 

Names  in  use. — Angelica- tree,  Hercules'  Club. 


100 

Family  COR:^r^CE.^. 

CORNUS  Linn. 

Cornus  florida  Linn.  (Flowering)  Dogwood, 

Kanuk.— From  eastern  Massafbuaetts  to  central  Florida,  and  west  through  south- 
ern Ontario,  southern  Michigan  (up  to  Montcalm  County)  to  southwestern  Missouri 
and  Texas  (Hrazos  River);  Mexico  (Sierra  Madrc  Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Flowering-  Dogwood  (Mass.,  R.  I..  K  Y.,  N.  J.,Del., 
Pa.,  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Miss.,  La.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,  Kans.,  Mioh.,  Ont., 
Ohio,  Ind.);  Dogwood  (N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla., 
La.,  Ky.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  Mich.);  Boxwood  (Conn.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Miss., 
Mich.,  Ky.,  Ind..  Ont.);  False  Box  dogwood  (Ky.):  New  England  Box- 
wood (Tenn.);  Flowering  Cornel  (K.  I.);  Cornel  (Tex.). 

VARIETIES    DISTINGUISHED   IN   CULTIVATION. 

Cornus  florida  pendula  Temple.  Weeping  Dogwood. 

Cornus  florida  rubra  Temple.  Red-bract  Dogwood. 

Cornus  nuttallii  And.  (Pacific)  Dogwood. 

Rangk.— From  southern  coast  of  British  Columbia  (Lower  Fraser  River  and  \au- 
couver  Island)  through  Washington,  Oregon,  and  California  (coast  ranges  to  San 
Bernardino  Mountains  and  western  slopes  of  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Dogwood  (Cal.,  Oreg.,  Wash.);  California  Dog- 
wood (Cal.);  Flowering  Dogwood  (Oreg.,  Cal.);  Western  Dogwood. 

Cornus  alternifolia  Linn.  f.  Blue  Dogwood. 

Range.— From  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  (through  St.  Lawrence  River 
Valley)  to  Lake  Superior  (northern  shores)  and  Minnesota;  south  through  the  North- 
ern States  (and  along  the  Allegheny  Mountains)  to  northern  (Georgia  and  Alabama. 

Names  in  use. — Dogwood  (Vt.,  Mass.,  K.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Pa.,  Va.,  W.  Va.,  N.  C,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  111.,  Wis.,  Minn., 
Ohio,  Ont.);  Blue  Dogwood  (Pa.);  Purple  Dogwood  (Pa.);  Umbrella- 
tree  (R.I.) ;  Pigeonberry  (N.  Y.);  Alternate  leaved  Dogwood  (Mich.); 
Green  (Jsier  (Vt.). 


Wan^      liAJJYnA 


Nyssa  sylvatica  IMarsli.  id      n  a  I^  .    ^ack  G-um. 

NySSA   MUl/riFLORA 
RaN(;k. — From  Maine  (Keuuebei-  River)  to  Florida  (Kissiflimee  iMver  and  Tampa 
Bay)  and  west  to  southern  Ontario,  southern  Michigan  (up  to  Gratiot  County),  south- 
eastern Missouri,  and  Texas  (Hra/.os  River). 

Names  in  use.— Black  Gum,  (N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va..  W.  Va.,  N.  C, 
S.  C,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  111.,  Ind.);  Sour  (lum  (Vt.,  Mass., 
E.  L,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  W.Va.,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Tex.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  111.) ; 
Tupelo  (Mass.,  K.L,  N.J.,  Del.,  S.C,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  Tex.,  111.,  Ohio); 
Pepperidge  (Vt.,  Mass.,  ft.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  .7.,  fci.  C,  Tenn.,  Mich.,  Ohio, 
Ont.);  Wild  Peartree  (Tenn.);  Yellow  Gumtree  (Tenn.);  Gum  (Md.); 
Stiukwood  (W.Va.);  Tupelo  Gum  (Fla.). 


101 

VAKiKTY  i>isriN(;risiii:D  iv  cii.tivatiox. 

Nyssa  sylvatica  pendula  (^ Temple)  Sudw. 

Nyssa  biflora  \\'alt.  Water  G-um. 

Nyssa  Ac^uatica  Linn. 

Range. — Maryland  (Mont!j;oinery  County)  to  FloriiLi  iin<l  (•<ntral  Alabama. 

Nyssa  ogeche  Marsh.  Sour  Tupelo. 

Nyssa  capitata  ^Yalt. 

Range. — From  southern  borcleis  of  South  Carolina  (near  coast  and  through  the 
Ogeeihee  River  Valley  in  Georgia)  to  northern  Florida  (Clay  County)  and  western 
Florida  (Washington  County). 

Na:mes  in  use. — Sour  Tupelo  (S.  C,  Fla.);  Ogeecliee  Lime  (S.  C. 
Fla.):  Gopher  Plum  (Fhu);  Tuojgloj-VVikl  Liiyetree;   Limetree. 
Nyssa  aquatica  Linn.  f/rO^H/V/^^MJA^  ^     ^  Cotton  G-um.     _ 

Nyssa  uniflora  Wang.  i'"*^^   ' 

Range. — Coast  region  from  southern  Virginia  to  northern  I'imida.  .md  thiuugli 
the  Gulf  States  to  Texas  (Nueces  River);  northward  through  Arkansas,  west  Ten- 
nessee and  Kentucky,  southern  and  southeastern  Missouri  to  southern  Illinois  (lowtn- 
Wabash  River). 

Names  in  use. — Large  Tupelo  (Ala.,  La,,  Tex.);  Tupelo  (ium  (Ga., 
Ala.,  Miss.,  La.);  Sour  Gum  (Ark.,  Mo.);  Swamp  Tupelo  (S.  C.,  La.); 
Cottou  Gum  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.);  Tupelo  (N.  O.,  S.  C);  Wild  Olivetree 
(La.);  Olivier  a  graudes  feuilles  (La.);  Olivetree  (Miss.). 

Family  ERIOA.C^E. 

VACCINIUM  Linn. 

Vaccinium  arboreum  Marsh.  Tree  Huckleberry. 

Haxge. — From  North  Carolina  to  Florida  (Hernando  County)  ami  through  tlie 
Gulf  States  to  eastern  Texas  (Matagorda  Bay);  northward  through  Arkansas  and 
Tennessee  to  southern  Illinois  and  Missouri. 

Names  in  use. — Farkleberry  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Mo.); 
Sparkleberry  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Fla.);  Myrtle  Berrie-s  (La.);  Bluet 
(La.);  Tree  Huckleberry  (S.  0.);  Gooseberry  (N.  0.). 

«^RBUTUS  Linn. 

Arbutus  n||nziesiii*arsbf         «"  Madroiia. 

RaN(;e.— Coast  region  from  British  Columbia  (islands  at  Seymour  Xarro'.vs)  tc 
California  (coast  ranges  to  Santa  Lucia  Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Madrofia  (Cal.,  Greg.);  Madrove  (Cal.);  Laurel- 
wood  (Oreg.):  Madrone-tree;  Laurel  (Oreg.);  Manzanita  {(mii^.). 

Arbutus  xalapensis  H.  B.  K.  Mexican  Madrona. 

Arbutus  xalapensis  var.  texana  (iray. 

Range. — Texas  (Travisand  Hays — Rio  Blanco  River — counties  to  Eagle  and  Gua- 
dalupe mountains):  Mexico  (Sierra  Madre  Mountains  in  Xuevo  Leon,  to  mountfiins 
near  .lalapa). 

Names  in  use. — Mauzanitaj  MadroHa;  Madrone-tree;  Laurel. 


102 

Arbutus  arizonica  (Gray)  Sargent.  Arizona  Madrona. 

ARI5UTUS  XALAi'ENSis  var.  ARIZONICA  Gray. 

Raxge. — Southern  Arizona  (Santa  Catalinaand  Santa  Rita  mountains) ;  southward 
into  Mexico  (Sierra  Madre  Mountains  in  t'hilniahua^ 

ANDROMEDA  Linn. 

Andromeda  ferruginea  Walt.  AndromedcL 

Ran<;p:. — Cwist  region  from  South  Carolina  to  Florida  (Cedar  Keys  on  west  coast) ; 
Mexico  (region  of  San  Luis  I'otosi,  mountains  of  Oaxaca,  Orizabn,  Jitotole,  and 
Talea);  West  Indies. 

Xame  in  use. — Titi  (Fla.). 
Andromeda  ferruginea  arborescens  Miclix. 
Andromeda  ferruginea  fruticosa  Michx. 

OXYDENDRUM  de  C. 
Oxydendrum  arboreum  (Liun.)  de  C.  Sourwood. 

RAXdp:. — From  Pennsylvania  (Mount  Pleasant,  in  Westmoreland  County,  and 
along  the  Alleghony  Mountains)  to  western  Florida  and  southern  Alabama  (eastern 
shores  Mobile  Bay),  westward  to  southern  Indiana,  Arkansas  (mountains)  and  west- 
ern Louisiana. 

Names  in  use. — Sourwood  (W.  Va.,  N.  0.,  S.  C.  Ga..  Fla.,  Ala., 
Miss.,  La.,  Ky.,  Ohio);  Sorrel-tree  (Pa.,  X.  C.,  S.  C,  Miss.,  La.,  Ohio); 
Sour  Gum  Bush  (Ohio);  Sour  Gum  (W.  Va.);  Arrow-wood  (W.  \"a.); 
Titi  (S.  C.);  Lily  of  the  Valley- tree. 

KALMIA  Linn. 
Kalmia  latifolia  Linn.  Mountain  Laurel. 

KAX(iE. — From  New  liruuswick  to  Lake  Erie  (northern  shores  and  mainly  along  the 
Appalachian  .Mcmntains)  to  western  Florida ;  west  through  the  Gulf  States  to  western 
Louisiana  and  Arkansas  (Red  River). 

]!^^AMES  IN  USE. — Laurel  (N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  J.,  X.  Y., 
Pa.,  Bel.,  Ya.,  W.  Va.,  I<f.  C,  S.  C.,  Miss.,  La.,  Mo.);  Calico  Bush  (Vt., 
E.  I.,  K  Y.,  Pa.,  Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.);  Spoonwood  (X.  H., 
Mass.,  11.  I.,  Pa.,  Miss.);  Ivy  (Conn.,  Md.,  Va.,  :N^.  C.,  S.  C,  Miss.); 
Poison  Ivy  (Tenn.,  Ala.);  Poison  Laurel  (Ala.);  Mountaiu  Laurel  (Vt., 
Mass.,  W.  Va.,  Ky.,  Tenn.);  Sheep  Laurel  (Pa.);  Wood  Laurel  (Pa.); 
Small  Laurel  ( W.  Va.) ;  Kalmia  (Pa..  S.  C.) ;  Calico  tree  ( leuu.) ;  Calico 
Flower  (Tenn.);  Mountain  Ivy  'Va.);  Big-leaved  Ivy  (lit.  domestic 
medicine);  Ivywood  (S.  C). 

RHODODENDRON  Linu. 
Rhododendron  maximum  Linn.  G-reat  Rhododendron. 

liAN(.i.. — From  No\  a  Scotia  to  I>ake  Erie  (north  shores)  and  southward  in  New 
England  ami  New  York  (and  along  the  Alh^gheny  Mountains)  to  northern  Georgia. 

Names  in  use. — Great  Laurel  (N.  H.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa., 
N.  C,  Minn.);  Rose  Bay  (R.  L,  Pa.,  N.  C,  S.  C);  Bigleaf  Laurel  (Pa.); 
Big  Laurel  (W.  Va.);  Laurel  (R.  I.,  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C);  Mountain  Laurel 
(Pa.,  S.  C);  Rhododendron  (R.  L,  K  Y.,  Pa.,  Va.,  S.  C);  Dwarf  Rose 
Bay-tree  (Tenn.):  Spoon  Hutch  (N.  H.);  Wild  Rose  Bay  and  Deer- 
tongue  Laurel  (lit.  of  domestic  medicine). 


103 

VAKIPniES    I>ISTING(ISHKI>   IN    CULTIVATION. 

Rhododendron  maximum  roseum  ruisli. 
Rhododendron  maximum  purpureum  Pursb. 
Rhododendron  maximum  album  ruish. 

Rhododendron  cata^vbiense  Michx.  Cata^vba  Rhododendron. 

RANtJi:.— Moiiutaiiis  from  Virj>iuia  and  West  Virginia  to  Georgia  and  Alabama 
(Lookout  Mountain,  on  Little  Liver  iu  Dekalb  Comity). 

Family  MIYRSIN^CE^E. 
ICACOREA  Aublet. 

Icacorea  paniculata  (Nutt.)  Sudworth.  Marlberry. 

Ardisia  pickeringia  Nutt. 

Raxge. — Cnast  of  eoutbern  Florida  (on  the  east  coast  from  Mosquito  Inlet  to 
southern  islands  and  on  the  west  coast  from  Caloosa  River  to  Cape  Romano);  Baha- 
mas, tuba,  and  southern  Mexico. 

Names  in  use. — Marlberry  (Fla.);  Cherry  (Fla.). 

JAQUINIA  Linn. 
Jaquinia  armillaris  Jacq.  Joe^vood. 

Range. — Off  the  coast  of  southern  Florida  (Sanibel  Islands  to  southern  keys  and 
Everglades) :  Mexico,  Central  America,  Venezuela,  and  northern  Brazil. 

Name  in  use. — Joewood  (Fla.). 

Family  S^I>OTA.CE^E. 

CHRYSOPHYLLUM  Linu. 

Chrysophyllum  monopyrenum  Swartz.  Satinleaf. 

Oheysophyllum  ohviforme  Lam. 

RANciE. — Coast  of  southern  Florida  (on  the  east  coast  from  Mosquito  Inlet  to 
southern  keys  and  on  the  west  coast  from  Caloosa  River  to  Cape  Sable) ;  Bahamas 
and  West  Indies. 

Name  in  use.— Satinleaf  (Fla.). 

SIDEROXYLON  Linu. 
Sideroxylon  mastichodendron  Jacq.  Mastic. 

Range. — Coast  of  sonthern  Florida  (on  the  east  coast  from  Cape  Canaveral  to 
southern  keys  and  on  the  west  coast  from  Cape  Romano  to  Cape  Sable) ;  Bahamas 
and  West  Indies. 

Najie  in  use. — Mastic  (Fla.);  Wild  Olive  (Fla.). 
BUMELIA  Swartz. 

Bumelia  tenax  (Linu.)  Willd.  Tough  Bumelia. 

Range. — Coast  region  North  Carolina  to  Florida  (Cape  Canaveral  and  Cedar  Keys). 

Names  in  use, — Black  Haw  <Fla.);  Tough  Buckthorn  (S.  C);  Iron- 
wood  (S.  C,  Fla.). 


104 
Bumelia  lanuginosa  (Michx.)  Pers.  Shittimwood. 

RANta:.--Kiom  southern  (jeorgia  and  northern  Florida  through  Alabama  (  Tennt's- 
see  KMver  Valley  to  coast  plain) ;  from  southern  Illinois  and  southern  Missouri  through 
Arkansas  and  Texas  to  Mexico  (Nuevo  Leon). 

Names  in   use. — Gum  Elastic;   Shittimwood   (Tex.);    Black   Haw 
(Fla.). 
Bumelia  lanuginosa  rigida  Gray. 

Ka.V(;e. — Western  Texas  to  Arizona  and  south  into  Mexico  (Nuevo  Leon). 
Bumelia  lycioides  (Linn.)  Givrtn.  f.  Buckthorn  Bumelia. 

Kanh;k. — From  southern  Virginia  to  Florida  (Mosquito  Inlet  and  L'aloosa  Kivei) 
and  west  to  southern  Illinois,  southern  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Texas  (Kio  Concho 
River). 

Names  in  use. — Ironwood  (Va.,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  Ky.):  South- 
ern Buckthorn  (Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  111.);  Carolina  Buckthorn  (X.  C); 
Buckthorn  (S.  C);  Chittimwood  (Tex.);  Mock  Orange  (Fla.j. 

Bumelia  angustifola  Nutt.  Saffron  Plum. 

Range. — IMorida  coast  regiou  (on  the  east  from  Indian  River  to  southern  keys,  and 
on  the  west  coast  from  Cedar  Keys  to  Cape  Romano);  Texas  (Rio  Grande  Kiver 
lielow  Laredo);  Mexico  (Nuevo  Leon) ;  West  Indies. 

Xames  IN  USB. — Saffron  Plum  (Fla.);  Downward  Plum  (Fla.j;  Ants- 
wood  (Fla.). 

DIPHOLIS  A.  de  C. 

Dipholis  salicifolia  (Linn.)  A.  de  C.  Bustic. 

Kan'(;k. — Coast  of  southeru  Florida  (Biscayne  Bay  and  a  nuniher  of  southern  keys) ; 
Bahamas  and  West  Indies. 

Names  in  use. — Bustic  (Fla.);  Cassada  (Fla.). 
MIMUSOPS  Linn. 
Mimusops  sieberi  A.  de  C.  Wild  Sapodilla. 

Kan<;i:. — ort' the  coast  of  southern  Florida  (southern  keys);  I'.ahamas  ami  \\'est 
Indies  ( ?). 

>'AMES  IN  USE.— Wild  Dilly  (Fla.);  Wild  Sapodilla  (Fla.). 


FaixiiW  EBEIS^ A.CE^E. 

Diospyros  virginiana  Linn.'H^fc^  tAJJC   ^*^^^^         Persimmon. 

HANciK. — Connecticut  v Light-house  roinfc.  New  Haven);  New  York  vLon^-  NLind);\ 
from  southern  New  York  (east  of  Allegheny  Mountains)  to  Florida  (Biscayne  Bay 
and  Caloosa  River);  from  southern  Ohio  to  .southein  Alabama  ami  west  to  south- 
western Iowa,  southern  Missouri,  and  eastern  Kansas  (Franklin.  Anderson.  Bourbon, 
Crawford,  and  Cherokee  couuties),  Indian  Territory  and  Texas  (Colorado  River).       \ 

Names  in  use. — Persimmon  (Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va.,  \ 
W.  Ya.,  N.  C,  S.  (\,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  111.,    \ 
Ind.,  Iowa,  Ohio);  Date  Plum  (X.  .T.,Tenn.);  Plaqueminier  (La.);  Sim- 
mon (Fla.);  Possumwood  (Fla.). 


105 
Diospyros  texana  Scheele.  Mexican  Persimmon, 

Kax»jk. —  Texas  vC'olorado  and  Rio  Conclio  rivers)  t<>  Mcxito  (Niuvo  Lcim  . 

Xames  in  use. — Mexican     Persimmon    (Tex.);    Black    I'ersimmon 
(Tex.);  Cbapote  (Tex.). 

Family  SYMFLOCA^CE^E. 


Symplocos  tinctoria  (Linn.)  L'Her.  [j  Sweetleaf. 

Kanoe. — From  southern  Delaware  (peninsula)  to  Florida;  west  in  tlie  Atlantic 
region  to  the  Bine  Ridge  Mountains,  and  through  the  Gulf  States  (in  Alaltama  up  to 
Tennessee  River)  to  western  Louisiana  and  southern  Arkansas  (border  counties). 

jS^ames  in  use. — Sweetleaf  (Del.,  X.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Ala.);  Yellow- 
wood  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.);  Horse  Sugar  (Del.,  Ala..  La.);  Florida  Laiire? 
(Fla.).  ' 

Family  STYRACACE^^. 
MOHRODENDRON  Britton. 

Mohrodendron  carolinum  (Linn.)  Britton.  Silverbell-tree. 

Halesia  tetraptera  Ellis. 

Ranhe. — From  West  Virginia  (mountains)  to  southern  Illinois  and  south  to  middle 
Florida,  northern  Alabama  (Lauderdale,  Cullman,  and  Talladega  counties  i.  and 
Mississippi  through  Arkansas  and  western  Louisiana  to  eastern  Texas. 

Xames  in  use. — Snowdrop-tree  (R.  L,  Pa.  (cult.).  N.  C,  S.  C,  Fla., 
La.);  Silverbell-tree  (K.  I.  (cult.),  Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.);  Silverbell  (Pa., 
cult.);  Wild  Olive  tree  (Tenn.);  Bell-tree  (Tenn.):  Four  winged  Hale- 
sia (Ala.);  Opossum- wood  (Ala.);  Eattlebox  (Tex.):  Calicowood  (Tex., 
111.);  Tisswood  (Tenn.). 
Mohrodendron  carolinum  meehani  (Sarg.)  noni.  nov. 

Meehan  Silverbell-tree. 

Ran(tE. — Originated  in  the  nursery  of  Thomas  Meehan  &  Sons,  (xermantown.  Pa., 
and  so  far  kuown  only  in  cultivation. 

Mohrodendron  dipterum  (Ellis)  Britton.  Snowdrop-tree, 

Halesia  diptera  l']llis. 

Range. ^Coast  region  from  South  Carolina  to  northern  Florida,  and  throu>,'h  the 
Gulf  States  (mainly  in  coast  jilain  of  Alabama)  to  Texas:  northward  through  Louisi- 
ana to  central  Arkansas. 

Names  in  use. — Snowdrop^e  {II.  I.,  Del.  (cult.),  S.  C,  Ala.,  La., 
Tex.)-.  Silverbell-tree  (K.  I.,  Del.  (cult.),  Miss.,  Tex.);  Cow  Licks  ^La.). 

Fraxinus  cuspidata  Torr.'         ^  Fringe  Ash. 

Ra_xge. — From  southwestern  Texas  (canyon  of  Rio  Grande  River)  through  .southiru 
New  Mexico  to  Arizona  (Grand  C'anycni  of  Colorado  River),  and  southwanl  into 
Mexico  (mountains  of  Cohahuila  and  Nuevo  Leon  to  Santa  Eulalia  Mountains  in 
L'liihnahua). 


106 

Fraxinus  greggii  Gray.  G-regg  Ash. 

]\A.N(,i:. — Western  Texas  (from  mouth  of  San  Pedro  River  to  Pecos  Kiver  iiiid 
southward  into  Mexico  (mountains  of  Nuevo  Leou,  Cohahiiila,  and  Chihuahua  i. 

Fraxinus  quadrangulata  Micbx.  Blue  Ash. 

1\a.N(;k. — From  Miehi^iaii.  Illinois,  and  Iowa  southward  (ranj^iuj;  into  southeastern 
Kansas  in  Sumner  and  Cherokee  eounties)  to  northern  Alabama  (Jackson  and  Madi- 
son counties)  and  to  northeastern  Arkansas.     Hau^e  insufticieutly  known. 

Name  in  use. — l>lne  Ash  (Pa.  (cult.),  Ala.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111.,  Mk-b.). 

Fraxinus  nigra  .Marsh,     ''^'^"^'"^'m/v^    ^^f^^j/^^^^  * fk  Black  Ash. 
Fraxinus  sambucifolia  Lain, '♦€1*^  *mrc  ^J^VCJUL/L  7H*WM 

Range. — From  northern  shores  of  Gulf  of  St.  La\tfence  and  Newfoundland  vr> 
Manitoba  (^Lake  Winnipeg)  and  southward  to  Delaware  ^ Newcastle  Couutj'),  \'ir- 
jjinia  (mountains),  southern  Illinois,  central  Missouri,  and  northwestern  Arkan.sas. 

Names  in  use.— Black  Ash  (Me.,  N.  H,,  Vt.,  Mass.,  E,  I,,  N,  Y.,  N.  J,, 
Pa^,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  Mo.,  Ohio,  Out..  Mich.,  111.,  Miuii.);  Hoop  Ash  (Vt., 
N.  Y..  Del.,  Ohio,  111.,  Ind.);  Basket  Ash  (Mass.):  Browu  Ash  (N.  H., 
Tenii.):  Swamp  Ash  (Yt.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y'.);  Water  Ash  (W.  Ya.,  Teiiii., 
liid.). 
Fraxinus  anomala  W  ats.  D-warf  Ash. 

IiAXiiE.— From  southwestern  Colorado  (McElrao  River)  through  southern  Utah; 
southern  Nevada  (Charleston  Mountains). 

Names  in  use. — Ash  (Utah);  Dwarf  Ash  (Ari/.,  Utah). 

Fraxinus  anomala  triphylla  Jones.  Trifoliate  Dwarf  Ash. 

R.vxciE. — Arizona  (type  locality  "'  Pagumpa  in  the  Grand  Wash.  4. 000  feet  altitude '" ). 

Fraxinus  velutina  Torr.  Leatherleaf  Ash. 

Fraxinus  pistaciyi:folia  Torr. 

Range. — From  western  Texas  (mountains)  through  southern  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  to  .southern  Nevada  and  southeastern  California  (Panamiut  Mountains  and 
Owens  Lake  i. 

Name  in  use. — Ash  (Tex.,  Ariz,.^  Nev.).  f  J 

Fraxinus  americana  Linn,    iA/<€^    ^^/tTMCTr^^t^*   White  Ash. 

li'A.Ni;!.— From  Nova  Scotia  aiul  Newfoundland  to  Florida  and  westward  to  ( intariu 
and  norlhern  Minnesota,  eastern  Nebraska',  Kansas,  Indian  Territory,  and  Texas 
(Trinity  River).  ^' 

Names  in  use,— White  Ash  (Me.,  N,  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  K.  I.,  Conu., 
N.  Y.,  N,  J.,  Del.,  Pa.,  Va.,  VY,  Va,,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Mi.ss., 
La.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  Mo,,  111,,  Intl.,  Iowa,  Ivans.,  Nebr.,  Mich.,  Ohio,  Out., 
Minn.,  N.  Dak.,  Wis.);  Ash  (Ark.,  Iowa,  Wis.,  Ill,,  Mo,,  Minn.);  Amer- 
ican Ash  (Iowa);   Fran(;-Frene  (Quebec);  Cane  Ash  (Ala.,  Miss.,  La.), 

Fraxinus  americana  curtissii  (Yasey)  Sudwortli. 

Small-fruit  "White  Ash, 
Fraxinus  americana  var,  microcarpa  Gray, 

Range. — Northern  Alabama  (Morgan  and  Mailisou  counties)  to  middle  lennessee. 

Fraxinus  texensis  (Gray)  Sar<ient.  Texas  Ash, 

i-RAXiNus  AMERICANA  var,  TEXENSIS  Gray. 
Range. — Northern,   central,  and  western  Texas  (from  near  Dallas  to  valley  of 
Devils  Rive;). 

Name  in  use. — Mountain  Ash  (Tex.). 


107 

Fraxinus  pennsylvanica  Marsh. ^{tf;.^^^    ^Hf^^    ^®^  -^sh. 
Fraxinus  pubescens  Lam.  ^g^Aj^Ct^^/G£/vdt^  - 

Range.— From  New  Brunswick  to  uorthern  FloridU  and  westward  to  southern 
Ontario,  Dakota  (Black  Hills),  eastern  Nebraska,  northeastern  and  eastern  (border 
counties)  Kansas,  to  west  Tennessee  and  through  northern  Alabama  (mountain 
region  ni  St.  Clair  and  Cullman  coiyities). 

Names  in  use.— Red  Ash  (Me.,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  K  J., 
Pa.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  N.  0.,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Ga.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111., 
Ivans.,  Xebr.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  Ont.);  Brown  Ash  (Me.);  Black  Ash  (N.  J.); 
River  Ash  (R^t.,  Ont.);*Bastard  Ash  (Vt.);  Ash  (Nebr.);  Piss  Ash 

(^*t.).         -^  3 

Fraxinus  profunda  Bash.  Pumpkin  Ash. 

Range.— Western  Florida  and  southern  Missouri  (New  Madrid  County) ;  Arkansas 
(near  Varner).     Range  insufficiently  known. 

Name  in  use. — Pumpkin  Ash  (Ark.).  ^      jf/n     *     • 
Fraxinus  lanceolata  Borkh.  \/AXc^    ivu  ^^AA4AxJL      careen  Ash. 
Fraxinus  viridis  Michx.  f.  F*A^feew^|^   • 

Range. — From  Vermont  (Lake  Champlain  and  southward  in  the  Aj^alachian 
region)  to  northern  Florida;  westward  to  the  Saskatchewan  River,  eastern  ranges  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  extending  into  Utah  (Wasatch  Mountains)  and  eastern  and 
northern  Arizona  (niountains),  and  through  eastern  Texas  (to  Colorado  River). 

Names  in  use.— Green  Ash  (Mass.,  R.  L,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa., 
Del.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  111.,  Kaus.,  Nebr.,  Mich., 
Minn.,  S.  Dak.,  Ohio,  Ont.,  Iowa);  Blue  Ash  (Ark.,  Iowa);  White 
Ash  (Kans.,  Nebr.);  Swamp  Ash  (Fla.,  Ala.,  Tex.);  Ash  (Ark.,  Iowa, 
Nebr.);  Water  Ash  (Iowa). 

Fraxinus  berlandieriana  A.  de  C.  Berlandier  Ash. 

Range. — Western  J'exas  { banks  of  Nueces  and  Rio  Blanco  rivers  and  other  -treams), 
but  probably  established  in  northeastern  Mexico  and  in  the  United  States  only 
through  theagency  of  man  ;  indigenous  in  southern  Mexico  (mountainsofMichoacan). 

Fraxinus  caroliniana  Mill.  Water  Ash. 

Fraxinus  platycarpa  Michx. 

Range. — Coast  region  from  southern  Virginia  to  Florida  (Cape  Canaveral  and 
Calnosa  River)  and  in  the  Gull  region  (in  Alabama  up  to  Tuscaloosa,  Baldwin,  Clark, 
and  Mobile  counties)  to  Texas  CSabine  River);  northward  through  western  Louisi- 
ana to  southwestern  Arkansas 

Names  in  use.— Water  Ash  (N.  C,  S.  C.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.) ; 
Carolina  Ash  fPa..  cult.);  Poppy  Ash  (Ala.);  Pop  Ash  (Fla.). 

Fraxinus  oregona  Nntt.  Oregon  Ash. 

Ran<.k. — From  I'uget  Sound  (shores)  southward  through  Washington.  Oregon 
and  California  (coast  region  to  San  Francisco  Bay;  on  foothills  of  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  to  mountains  oi  San  Bernardino  and  San  Diego  counties). 

Name  in  use. — Oregon  Ash  (Cal.,  Wash.,  Oreg.). 
CHIONANTHUS  Linn. 
Chionanthus  virginica  Lmn.  Fringetree. 

Rangk. — From  Pennsylvania  (Lancaster  and  Chester  counties),  Delaware,  West 
Virginia  (.Jackson  and  Summers  counties),  and  Kentucky  (Warren  County)  to 
Florida  (Tampa  Bay) :  west  through  the  Gulf  States  to  Texas  (Brazos  River)  and 
southern  Arkansas;  eastern  Kansas  (Allen  County). 

Names  in  use. — Fringetree  (R.  I.  (cult.),  N.  Y.  (cult.),  N.  J.,  Pa., 
Del.,  D.  C,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Mo.);  White  Fringe 


108 

(Mass.,  K.  I.,  Pa.);  American  Fringe  (W.  Va.);  White  Ash  (W.  Va.); 
Old  Man's  Beard  (N.  C,  S.  C,  Ahi.,  Fla..  Miss.,  La.)}  Flowering  Ash 
tS.  C);  Sunflower-tree  (Tenn.). 

OSMANTHUS  Laureiro. 
Osmanthus  americanus  (Linn.)  Benth.  «&  Hook.  Devilwood. 

KANtiK.— t'ojist  rej;iou  from  North  Carolina  (Cape  Fear  River)  to  I'loriila  (Kis- 
sirnmee  Rivor  and  Tampa  Bay)  and  west  to  eastern  Louisiana ;  Arkansas  ( -'  >. 

Names  in  use. — Devilwood  (Ala.,  Fla.);  Wild  Olive  (Fla.). 

Family  B0RR^G1:N^CE^E;. 

CORDIA  Linn. 

Cordia  sebestena  Linn.  Geigertree. 

Kaxgk. — Southern  I'hirida  isUiuds  (Key  West  and  othor  southcni  islands); 
Bahamas,  West  Indies,  Guiana,  New  Granada. 

Name  in  use. — Geigertree  (Fla.). 
Cordia  boissieri  A.  de  C.  Anacahuita. 

Rangk.— From  Texas  (Rio  Grande  River)  and  southern  New  Mexico  into  north- 
ern Mexico. 

BOURRERIA  Browne. 

Bourreria  havanensis  (lioem.  &  Sch.)  Miers.  Strongback. 

Rangk. — Florida  keys  (Key  West,  Key  Largo,  Upper  Metacombe,  and  Klliotts 
Key);  Bahamas  and  several  of  the  West  Indies. 

Names  in  use. — Strongbark  (Fla.);  Strongback  (Bahama  Islands). 

Bourreria  havanensis  radula  (Poir.)  Gray. 

Bristle-leaf  Strongback. 

EHRBTIA  Browne. 
Ehretia  elliptica  de  C.  Anaqua. 

Rangk. — Western  Texas  (from  upper  San  Marcos  River  to  the  Rio  Grande  River); 
Mexico  (Nuevo  Leon  and  Coahuila  to  mountains  of  San  Luis  I'otosi). 

Names  in  use. — Knackaway  (Tex.);  Ana(jua  (Tex.). 

Family  VERBEN^CE^E. 
CITHAREXYLUM  Linn. 

Citharexylum  villosum  Jacq.  Fiddlewood. 

1i'an(;e. — Southern  Florida  (from  Cape  Canaveral  to  the  southern  keys). 

Name  in  use. — Fiddlewood  (Fla.). 

AVICENNIA  Linn. 
Avicennia  nitida  Jacq.  Blackwood. 

Range. — Florida  coast  (from  St.  Augustine  to  the  southern  keys  on  the  cast  coast 
and  on  the  west  coast  from  Cedar  Keys  to  Cape  Sable);  Louisiana  (Mississippi 
River  delta);  several  of  the  West  Indies  and  lira/.il. 

Names  in  use.— Blackwood  (Fla.);  JBlacktree  (Fla.);  Black  Man- 
grove (Fla.). 


109 


Family  SCROPHUL^RI^CE^E. 

PAULOWNIA  Sieb.  &  Zucc. 
Paulo"wnia  tomentosa  (Thuub.)  Steudel.  Paulo-wnia. 

liAXi.K. — .lapaii.  Cultivated  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  and  Soutbeni  States  and  niu- 
niuji  Avild  in  many  localities  (near  Wilmington,  Del.;  Washington,  D.  C;  Mobile, 
Ala.,  etc.). 

Catalpa  catalpa  (Linn.)  Karst.  (Common)  Catalpa. 

Catalpa  bignonioides  Walt. 

Range. — Supposed  to  be  indigenous  only  in  southwestern  Georgia,  western  Florida, 
central  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  but  widely  cultivated  and  naturalized  elsewhere 
east  of  the  Eocky  Mountains. 

Names  in  use. — Catalpa  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del., 
W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ark.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  111., 
Kans.,  Kebr.,  Iowa,  Mich.,  Wis.,  Ohio,  Minn.);  Indian  Bean  (Mass., 
R.  L,  N.  Y.,  X.  J.,  Pa.,  N.  C,  III.);  Beantree  (N.  J.,  Del.,  Pa.,  Va.,  La., 
.Nebr.);  Catawba  (W.  Va.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Kans.) ;  Cigartree  (R.  I.,  N  J.,  Pa., 
W.  Va.,  Mo.,  111.,  Wis.,  Iowa);  Catawba- tij,ee  (Del.);  Indian  Cigar  tree  '  t 
(Pa.);  Smoking  Bean  (R.  I. )y  Vf  ^''^t  ljC]^^  ^ ^' 
Catalpa  speciosa  Warder.M  '  Hardy  Catalpa.    >^ 

Range. — Through  southern  Illinois  (from  the  Vermilion  River)  and  Indiana,  west- 
ern   Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  southeastern   Missouri  and  northeastern  Arkansas;         f 
elsewhere  naturalized  through  cultivation,  especially  in  southern  Arkansas,  western 
Louisiana,  nnd  eastern  Texas. 

Names  in  use. — Hardy  Catalpa  (111,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Mich.,  cult.); 
Western  Catalpa  (Pa.  (cult.)  Ohio,  Kans.,  Nebr.  (cult.)  111.);  Catalpa 
(R.  I.,  N.  Y.  (cult.)  La.,  111.,  Ind.,  Mo.,  Wis.,  Iowa,  Nebr.,  Minn.,  cult.); 
Cigartree  (Mo.,  Iowa,  cult.);  Bois  Puant  (La.);  Indian  Bean  (Ind.); 
Shawneewood  (Ind.). 

CHILOPSIS  Don. 

Chilopsis  linearis  (Cav.)  Sweet.  Desert  Willow. 

Range. — Through  southwestern  (from  near  Laredo)  and  western  Texas,  southern 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  southern  Utah  and  Nevada,  and  southern  California  (San  Diego 
Covinty);  northern  Mexico. 

Names  in  use. — Desert  Willow  (Cal.,  Tex.,  N.  Mex.,  Ariz.,  Utah, 
Nev.);  Texas  Flowering  Willow  (Tex.);  Flowering  Willow  (Tex.). 

CRESCENTIA  Linn. 

Crescentia  ovata  Burm.  Black  Calabash. 

Crescentia  cuci  rbitina  Linn. 

Range. — Coast  of  southern  Florida  (Biscayne  Bay,  east  of  mouth  of  Miami  River; 
also  on  Little  River);  West  Indies;  southern  Mexico;  Pacilic  coast  of  Panama; 
Venezuela. 

Names  in  use. — Black  Calabash-tree  (Fla.) ;  Black  Calabash  (Fla.). 


110 

Family  KTJ^IA^CE^E. 
EXOSTEMA  liichard. 

Exostema  caribaeum  (Jac(i.)  Koem.  ^^  Schult.  Prince^vood. 

K'anck. — Southern  Florida  keys  (abundiint  on  Key  West  and  Upper  Metacoinlie 
Key);  West  Indies;  sonthern  Mexico  and  west  coast  of  Nicara<4ua. 

Name  in  use. — Princewood  (Fla.). 

PINCKNEYA  Michx. 
Pinckneya  pubens  Michx.  Fevertree. 

IvANiiK. — Coast  region  from  South  Carolina  to  Georgia  and  Florida  inpiMT  Apa- 
laebicola  River  and  tril)ntaries  in  Florida  and  (Georgia).     Very  rare. 

Xames  in  use. — Georgia  Bark  (S. C,  Fla.) ;  Fevertree  (Ala.) ;  Florida 
Quimiie  Bark  (Fla.). 

G-UETTARDA  Vent. 
Gruettarda  elliptica  Swartz.  Guettarda. 

Ran(;i:. — Southern  Florida  keys  (near  coast);  Bahamas;  .Jamaica  (coast). 

Name  in  use. — Naked  wood  (Fla.). 

Family  C^FRIFOLT^CE.^. 
SAMBUCUS  Linn. 

Sambucus  mexicana  Presl.  Mexican  Elder. 

Range. — From  western  Texas  (Nueces  River)  through  southern  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  to  southern  California ;  also  in  northern  California  (Plumas  County) ;  south- 
ward through  Mexico  to  Central  America. 

Names  in  use. — Elder  (N.  Mex.,  Tex.);  Elderberry- tree. 

Sambucus  callicarpa  Greene.  Redberry  Elder. 

I\an(;e. — California  (coast  ranges). 

Sambucus  glauca  Nutt.  Pale  Elder. 

Ran(;e.— From  southern  British  Columbia  (Fraser  River)  and  Vancouver  Island 
to  the  southern  hordirs  of  California  and  eastward  to  the  Blue  Mountains  in  Oregon 
and  the  Wasatch  Mountains  in  Utah. 

Names  in  use. — Elder  (Cal.,Utab,  Oreg.);  Elderberry  (Cal.);  lilaek 
Elderberry  (Utah);  Mountain  Elder. 

VIBURNUM  Linn. 
Viburnum  lentago  Linn.  Sheepberry. 

Kanh;i;. — From  (^uehec  (Riviere  du  Loup)  to  the  Saskatchewan  River  and  south- 
ward through  the  Northern  States  (and  along  the  Allegheny  Mountains)  to  northern 
Georgia  and  in  western  range  south  to  southern  Indiana,  southwestern  Missouri,  and 
eastern  Nebraska. 

Names  in  use. — Sheepberry  (Vt.,  N.  H..  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Couu.,  N.  Y., 
N.  J.,  Pa., Del., S.  C,  Ky., 111.,  Iowa,  Mich.,  Nebr.,  Minn., N.  Dak.,  Ohio); 


Ill 

Naunyberry  (Vt.,  X.  T.,  jMicli.,  Ohio,  Out.,  Iowa,  Minn.,  N.  Dak.) :  Kanny 
Plum  (Vt);  Black  Haw  (111.,  Mo.,  Minn.,  N.  Dak.);  Wild  Kaisiu  (Me.); 
Sweetberry  (Minn.);  Sweet  Viburnum  (K.  I.,  Tenn..  Nebr.);  Viburnum 
(E.  1.). 

Viburnum  prunifoliuxn  Linn.  Nannyberry. 

Kange. — From  Conuecticut  (Fairfield  County  and  Lower  Hudson  River)  t» 
northern  Georgia;  ^vestward  through  southern  Michigan  to  eastern  Kansas  (border 
counties);  Indian  Territory.  The  southern  range  of  this  species,  to  which  some 
authors  unite  the  following  species,  is  iusufificieutly  known. 

Names  in  use.— Black  Haw  (E.  I.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Va., 
W.  Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ala.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Kans., 
111.,  Ind.,  Ohio);  Sloe(Teun.);  Sbeepberry  (N.  J.);  Nannyberry  (N.  J.); 
Alisier  (La.);  Stagbush;  Haw  (Md.,  Va.);  Sweet  Haw. 

Viburnum  rufotomentosum  Small.  Rusty  Nannyberry. 

Viburnum  prunifolium  /i  ferrugineum  Torrey  &  Gray. 

Range. — Southern  Virginia  to  Georgia  and  west  to  western  Texas.  Range  insuffi- 
ciently known. 


(\ 


Lj£ieu{«^^ 


INDEX    OF    LATIN    NAMES. 


'Accepttii  names  in  heavy-face  type;  names  commonly  nsf(.  liithfi'to  in  .small  capitals;  varieties 
distinguished  in  cultivation  in  italici.] 


ABIES  l>uliam.,  25. 

Abies  amabilis  (Loud.)  Forb.,  2G. 

Abies  arizonica  Merriam,  26. 

Abies  balsamea  (Linn.)  Mill.,  25. 

Abies  balxamea  argenttfolia  Sud\\ .,  I'S. 

Abies  balsamea  brachylepis  'Willk.,  25. 

Abies  balsamea  ccerulea  Carr.,  25. 

Abies  balsamea  heniisphcBrica  Sudw.,  25. 

Abies  balsamea  hudsonia  (Knigbt>  Veitch,  25. 

Abies  balsamea  longifolia  (Loud.)  Endl..  25. 

Abies  balsamea  nudicaulis  Carr.,  25. 

Abies  balsamea paucifolia  Sudw.,  25. 

Abies  balsamea 2) 'ostrata.  (Knij;ht)  Carr.,  25. 

Abies  balsamea  versicolor  Sudw.,  25. 

Abies  concolor  (Gor(l.)  Parry,  26. 

Abies  coiicolor  angustata  Sudw.,  26. 

Abies  concolor  lowiana  (Murr.)  Lemmon,  26. 

Abies  concolor  pendens  (Beissn.)  Sudw.,  26. 

Abies  concolor  purpurea  Sudw.,  26. 

Abies  concolor  purpurea  compressa  Sudw.,  26. 

Abies  coiicolor  varia  Sudw.,  26. 

Abies  fraseri  (Pur.sli)  Lindl.,  25. 

Abies  grandis  Lindl.,  26. 

Abtes  grandis  aurifolia  Sudw.,  26. 

Abies  grandis  crassa  Sudw.,  26. 

Abies  lasiocarpa  (Hook.)  Xutt.,  25. 

Abies  lasiocarpa  cceridescens  (Beissn.)  Sudw.,  26. 

Abies  mag-nlfica  Murr.,  27. 

Abies  magnifica  cyanea  Sudw.,  27. 

A  bies  magnifica  xanthocarpa  Lemmon,  27. 

Abies  mucronata  rar.  palustris  Raf.,  24. 

Abies  nobilis  Lindl.,  27. 

Abies  nobilis  glavcifolia  Sudw.,  27. 

Abies  nobilis  robustifolia  Sudw.,  27. 

Abies  shastensis  Lemmon,  27. 

Abie.s  tasifolia  Lambert,  23. 

Abies  taxifolia  Poiret,  24. 

Abies  venusta  (Dougl.)  Koch,  26. 

ACACIA  Adans.,78. 

Acacia  farnesiana  (Linn.)  Willd.,  78. 

/Acacia  flexicaulis  Bentb.,  78. 

Acacia  g reggii  Gray,  79. 

Acacia  wrightii  Benth.,  78. 

ACER  Linn.,  90. 

Acer  circinatum  Pursb.,  91. 

Acer  D.^svcARprM  Ebr.,  92. 

Acer  glabrum  Torr.,  91. 

Acer  grandidentatum  (Xutt.Imss.)  in  Torr.  & 

Gr.,92. 
Acer  macrophyllum  Pursli.,  90. 

19193— Bull.  17 8 


Acer  negundo  Linn.,  93. 

Acer  negiindo  angustissimum  (Pa.K)  Sudw.,  93. 
Acer  negundo  californicum  (T.  &.  Gr.)  Sargent,  93. 
Acer  negundo  crispifolium  Sudw.,  93. 
Acer  negundo  variegatum  Kuntze,  93. 
Acer  negundo  violaceum  (Koch)  I')ipp.,93. 
Acer  penhsylvanicum  Linn.,  90. 
Acer  rubrum  Linn.,  92. 

Acer  rubrum   drummondii    (Hook.  Sc    Arn.)    Sar- 
gent, 93. 
Acer  rubrum  sanguineum  (Spach)  Pax,  93. 
Acer  saccharinum  Linn.,  92. 
Acer saecharinum  av,reo-variegatum('S\c)i.)^\u\'^ .. 

92. 
Acer  saccharinum  dissectifolium  Sndw.,  92. 
Acer  saccharinum  lutescens  (Pax)  Sudw.,  92. 
Acer  saccharinum  novum  (Ellw.  &  Barr.)  Sndw. 

92.  • 

Acer  saccharinum  pendulum  (Nicb.)  Sudw.,  92. 
Acer  saccharinum  Wang.,  91 
Acer    saccharinum    "SVang.    var.    florid.vnum 

Chapm.,  91. 
Acer  saccharitnim  wierii  (Pax)  Sudw.,  92. 
Acer  saccharum  Marsb.,  91. 

Acer  saccharum  barbatum   (Miebx.)  Trelease,  91. 
Acer    saccharum     floridanum    (Cbapra.)    Small    & 

Heller,  91. 
Acer  saccharum  grandidentatum  (Nutt.)  Sudworth, 

92. 
Acer  saccharum  leucoderme  (Small)  Sudworth,  9L 
Acer  saccharum  nigrum  (Micbx.  f.)  Britton,91. 
Acer  saccharum  nigrum  monumentale  (Temple) 

Sudw.,  91. 
Acer  spicatum  Lam.,  90. 
ACERACE.I:,  90. 
.ESCUIUS  Linn.,  93. 
.ffisculus  californica  (Spach)  Xutt.,  94. 
^scuLUS  flava  Ait.,  94. 

JEscclus  FLAVA  Ait.  var.  PUKPURASCENsGray,  94 
JEsculus  glabra  Willd.,  93. 
.Esculus  octandra  M-irsh.,  94. 
.i;sculus  octandra  hybrida  (de  C.)  Sargent,  94. 
AIIANTHUS  Deaf.,  85. 
Ailanthus  glandulosa  aucubcejolia  Dipp.,  85. 
Ailanthus  glandulosa  pendulitolia  Bipp.,  85. 
Ailanthut  glandulosa  rubra  Dipp.,  85. 
ALNUS  Ehrh.,  49. 
AInus  acuminata  H,  B.  K.,  49. 
Alnus  glutinosa  (Linn.)  Ga'rtn.,  49. 
Alnus  qlutinosa  aurea  (Koch)  Nichol.,  49. 

113 


114 


Atnus  glutinosa  incisa  Willd.,  49. 

Alnus  (jlutinosa  lariniain  (Elir.)  'Willd.,  49. 

Alnus  glutinosa  qwici/nUa  Willd.,  49. 

Alnvs  INCANA  var.  VIKE!^CE.^•s  Wats.,  49. 

Alnus  maritima  (Marsh.)  Muehl.,  49. 

Alnus  oblongifolia  Ton-.,  49. 

Alnus  oregona  Nutt.,  49. 

AJnus  rhombifolja  Xutt.,  49. 

Alnus  tenuifolia  Xutt.,  49. 

AMELANCHIER  Medic,  70. 

Amelanchier  alnifolia  Nutt.,  71. 

Amelanchier  canadensis  (Linn.)  Medic,  70. 

Amelanchier  canadensis  obovalis  (Michx.)  B.  S.  P., 

71. 
Amelanchier  canadensis  spicata( Lam.)  Sargent,  71. 
AMYRIS  Browne,  84. 
Amyris  maritima  Jacq.,  84. 
Amtris  sylvatk'a  do  C,  84. 
ANACARDIACE.S:,  87. 
ANAMOMIS  Griseb.,98. 
Anamomis  dichotoma  (Poir.)  Sargent,  98. 
ANDROMEDA  Liun.,  102. 
Andromeda  ferruginea  Walt.,  102. 
Andromeda  ferruginea  arborescens  Michx.,  102. 
Andromeda  ferruginea  fruticosa  Michx.,  102. 
ANN0NACEiE,6(i. 
ANNONA  Linn.,  66. 
Annona  glabra  Linn.,  66. 
AQUIF0LIACE.5:,  89. 
ARALIA  Linu.,  99. 
Aralia  spinosa  Linn.,  99. 
ARALIACEiE,  99. 
ARBUTUS  Liun.,  101. 
Arbutus  arizonica  jGray)  Sargent,  102. 
Arbutus  menziesii  I'ursb,  101. 
Arbutus  xalapensis  H.  B.  K.,  101. 
Arbutus  xalapensis  var.  arizunica  Gray,  102. 
Arbutos  xalape.nsis  var.  texana  Gray,  101. 

AKDISIA  PICKERINt.lA  Xutt..  103. 

ASIMINA  Adan.s.,  60. 

Asimina  triloba  (Linn.)  I)unal.,66. 

AVICENNIALinn.,10«. 

Avicennia  nitida  Jaci].,  108. 

BETULALinn.,47. 

Betula  lenta  Linn.,  49. 

Betula  lutea  Michx.  f.,  48. 

Betula  nigra  Liun.,  48. 

Betula  occidentalis  Jiook.,  48. 

Betula  papyrifera  Mar.sh.,  48. 

Betula  papyrifera  minor  (Tuck.)  AVats.  &.Coult.,  48. 

Betula  populifolia  Mar.sh.,  47. 

Betula  populifolia  :v  papyrifera  Sargent,  47. 

Jietula  pojndij'iiUa  purpurea,  Hort.  Am.,  48. 

BETULACEiE,  47. 

BIGNONIACE.5:,  109. 

BORRAGINACE.S;,  108. 

BOURRERIA  Browne,  108. 

Bourreria  havanensis  (Roem.  &  Sch.)  Mier.s,  108. 

Bourreria  havanensis  radula  (Poir.)  Gray,  108. 

BROUSSONETIA  L'Her.,  63. 

Broussonetia  papyrifera  Vent.,  63. 

BUMELIA  Swartz,  103. 

Bumelia  angustifolia  Nutt.,  104. 

Bumelia  lanuginosa  (Miihx.)  I'ers.,  104. 

Bumelia  lanuginosa  rigida  Gray,  104. 

Bumelia  lycioides  (Linn.)  Gi«rtD.  f..  104. 


Bumelia  tenax  (Liun.)  Willd.,  103. 

BURSERAJa((i.,85. 

BURSEEA  fJlMMIFEKA  LiuU.,  85. 

Bursera  simaruba  (Linn.)  Sargent, 86. 

BURSERACEffi,  85. 

OACTACEJE,  97. 

Calyptranthes  chytraculia  Swartz,  98 

CANEllA  Browne,  87. 

Canella  alba  Murr.  in  Linn.,  87. 

Canella  winterana  (Linn.)  Ga»rtn..  87. 

CANELLACE.a;,  87. 

CANOTIATorr.,«. 

Canotia  holacantha  Torr.,  8,^. 

CAPPARIDACEiE,  67. 

CAPPARIS  Linn.,  67. 

Capparis  jamaicensis  Jacq.,  67. 

CAPRIFOLIACE.S:,  110. 

CARPINUS  Linu.,  50. 

Carpinus  caroliniana  Walt.,  50. 

Carya  .\lba  Nutt.,  40.       • 

Cakya  amara  Nutt.,  40. 

Carya  aquatica  Nutt.,  40. 

Carya  wicuocakp.\  Nutt.,  41. 

Carya  mykistic.^cfor.mls  Nutt.,  40. 

Carya  oliv^for.mis  Nutt.,  39. 

Carya  poecina  Nutt.,  41. 

Carta  sulcata  Nutt.,  41. 

Carya  tomextosa  Nutt.,  41. 

CASTANEA  Adans.,  51. 

Castanea  dentata  (Marsh.)  I5orkh.,  51. 

Castanea  pumila  (Linn.)  Mill,,  51, 

Castanea  vesca  p  Americana  Michx.,  51. 

Castanet,  vulgaris  y  American.a  A.  de  C.,  51. 

CASTANOPSIS  Spach,  5L 

Castanopsis  chrysophylla  (Hook.)  de  C,  51. 

CATAIPA  Scop.,  109. 

Catalpa  biononioides  Walt.,  109. 

Catalpa  catalpa  (Linn.)  Kar.st.,  109. 

Catalpa  speciosa  Warder,  109. 

CEANOTHUS  Linn.,  96. 

Ceanothus  arboreus  Greene,  96. 

Ceanothus  thyrsiflorus  Each.,  06. 

CELASTRACE.5;,  89. 

CELTIS  Linn.,  61. 

Celtis  Georgiana  S)iiall.  61. 

Celtis  Hellcri  ^•//(aH  (1.  c),  61. 

Celtis  mississippiensis  I'osc,  62. 

Celtis  occidentalis  Linii.,  61. 

Celtis  occidentalis  pumila  Gr.,6\. 

Celtis  occidentalis  reticulata  (Torr.)  Sargent,  62. 

CERCIDIUM  Tula.sne,  81. 

Cercidium  floridum  I5enth.,  81. 

Cercidium  torreyanum  (Wats.)  Sargent,  81. 

CERCIS  Liun.,  79. 

Cercis  canadensis  Linn.,  79. 

Cercis  canadi')isis plena  Sudw.,  80. 

Cercis  canadensis  pubescens  Pursh,  80. 

Cercis  reniformis  Engelm.,  80. 

CEROOCARPUS  II.  B.  K.,  69. 

Ccrcocarpus  ledifolius  Nntt.,  69. 

Cercocarpus  parvifolius  Nntt.,  69. 

Cercocarpus    parvifolius    betuloides    (Nutt.)    Sar. 

gent,  69. 
Cercocarpus  parvifolius  breviflorus  (Gr.)  Jones,  69, 
Cercocarpus  parvifolius  paucidentatus  Wati  ,  69. 
CEREUS  Mill.,  97. 


115 


^   Cereus  giganteus  Engelm.,  97. 
Cereus  schottii  En2;eliii.,  97. 
Cereus  thurberi  Kngelin.,  97. 
CHAMJECYPARIS  SpiHh,32. 
Cliameecyparis  lawsoniana  (Muri'.)  Pari.,  33. 
Chamacyparis     lau'soniana     alho-spica    ((jlord.) 

Beissii.,  34. 
Chamcecypans  lawsoniana  alvmi  Beissu.,  33. 
Chammcyparis  lawioniana  amabilis  (Hort.  Kew.) 

Siul-w.,34. 
Chamcecypans     lawsoniana     argentea     ((lord  ) 

Beissn.,  34. 
Chamcecyparis  lainoniana  argentea  dcpaiiperata 

Sudw.,34. 
Chamcecyparislairsoniana  argentea  in  inuta>>nt\\<;., 

34. 
Cliamcecyparis    lawioniana     argentea    prostrata 

(Beisan.)  Siidw.,34. 
Chamcecijparis     lawsoniana      argenteo-variegata 

(Veitch)  Bei.s.sn.,  33. 
Chamivcyparis  lawsoniana  argenteo-variegata  no- 

vicia  Sudw.,  33. 
Chameveyparis  lawsoniana  atroviridis  Sudw.,  33. 
Chamcecyparis  lawsoniana  aurea  (Gold.)  Beissn., 

33. 
Chamcecyijaris      lawsoniana     aurea      magnifica 

(Beissn.)  Sudw.,  33. 
Chaincecyparis  lai'soniana aureu-spica  Beissn. ,34. 
Chamiecyparis    lairsoniana     aureo-variegata 

(Veitcli)  Bei.-isn..  33. 
ChanHvcypai-is   lawsoniana    heissneriana    Smith 

and  Cie..  33. 
Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  bowleri  (Hort.  Kew.) 

Sudw.,  34. 
Chamcfcyparis     lawsoniana     californica     (Hort. 

Kew.)  Sudw..  34. 
Chamceeyparis lai>'S07iian a casuarin if olia  Beissn., 

34. 
Chamceeyparis lai'sonianacompacta  recensSudvr., 

34. 
Chamceeyparis  lau-aonia)i(t  crispa  Beissu..  34. 
Chamcecyjiaris  lawsoniana  cyanea  Sudw..  33. 
Chain cecypar is  laicsoniana  cyanea  pendens  ^ni{\\ ., 

33. 
Chamceeyparis     latrsoniana     darleijensis    (Hort. 

Ke-w.)  Sudw.,  34. 
Chamcecyjmris  lawsoniana  erecta  ((jord.)  Sudw., 

33. 
Chamceeyparis     lawsoniana     erecta     glauccscens 

Sudw.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis     lau-soniaiui     erecta     glaueifolia 

Sudw... 33. 
Chamceeyparis  laivsoniana  erecta  uiVidi*  (Veitcli) 

Beissn.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis   lawsoniana  Jiliformin     (Veitch) 

Beissn.,  34. 
Cham,cecy2)aris     lawsoniana     jili/onnis     globosa 

Bei.«isn.,34. 
Chamcecypans  lawsoniana/orstekiana  Beis.sn.,  34. 
Chamceeyparis     lawsoniana     fragrans     (Gord.) 

Beissn..  34. 
Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  fragrans    argyropsis 

Sudw.,  34. 
Chamceeyparis      lawsoniana      fragrans      cunica 

Beissn.,  34. 
Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  fra/eri  Beissu.,  33. 


Chamceeyparis      lawsoniana      gracilis      (Gord.) 

Beissn.,  34. 
Chamceeyparis  lawsoniaiia  gracilis piisilla  Sudw., 

34. 
Chamceeyparis    lawsoniana    intcrtexta    (Vritch) 

Beissn.,  34. 
Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  laxa  ]5ei88ii.,34. 
Chamceeyparis  lairsoniana  lutea  (Gord.)  Beissn., 
I       33. 

Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  bttea  tiavescens  n  Jord.) 
I       Sudw.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  minima  (Gord.)  Sudw., 

34. 
Chamceeyparis  laivsoniana   tnonuinentalis  albes- 
cens Sudw.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis  lairsoniana    mo  nu  mm  talis    nova 
Beissn.,  33. 
;   Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  nicea  Beissn.,  33. 
Chamcfcyparis  laivsoniana  nritans  Sudw.,  34. 
Chamceeyparis  laivsoniana  imtans  alba  (Gord.) 
'       Sudw.,  .34. 

Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  nutans  vera  (Beissn.) 
I       Sudw.,  34. 

I    Chamceeyparis  lawson  iana  orereynderi  Beissn ..  .'U. 
■    Chamceeyparis  lairsoniana  parra  Sudw.,  34. 
1    Chamceeyparis  lairsoniana  jmrva  albo-spicifonnis 
I       Sudw.,  34. 
Chamceeyparis  latcsoniana  parra  albo-variegata 
((iord.)  Sudw.,  34. 
.    Chamceeyparis  laivsoniana  jiarra  Candida  Siulw., 
!       34. 

Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  parva  densa  Sudw..  :!4. 
!  Chamaxyparis  laivsoniana  })yramidalis  jfaveola 
]       Sudw.,  33. 

1    Chamceeyparis     lawsoniana    pyraniidalis    leuco- 
/(A>/H«  Sudw.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis    laivsoniana    pyraniidalis    liiteo- 
I       tenuis  Sudw.,  33. 

1    Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  robusta  Beissn.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis  lairsoniana   robusta    argentifulia 

Sudw.,  33. 
Cliamcecyparis    lawsoniana      rohntta      aurifulia 

Sudw.,  33. 
Cliamcecyparis  lansoniana  robusta cinerea  Sudw., 

33. 
Chamceeyparis  lairsuniuiia  rosenthali  Beissu.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis  lairsoniana  shawi  Beissn.,  34. 
Chamceeyparis  laivsoniana  silver-queen  Beissn., 

34. 
Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  tortuosa  Beissu.,  34. 
Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  versicolor  Beissn..  33. 
Cliamcecyparis  lawsoniana  ireisscana  MopII.,  34. 
Chamceeyparis  laws;niaiia  ivestermanni  Beissn., 

33. 
Chamceeyparis  lawsoniana  worlei  Beissn.,  33. 
I   Chameecyparis  nootkatensis  (Lamb.)  Spach,  3-. 
Chamceeyparis  nootkatensis  albo-picta  Sndw.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis      nootkatensis      a  rgenteo-variana 

Sudw.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis        nootkatensis       aureo-versieolor 

Sudw.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis  nootkatmsi*  aureo-ciridis  (Hort. 

Kew.)  Sudw.,  33. 
Chamceeyparis  nootkatensis  ciof  rascens Sudw ..  33. 
Chamceeyparis    nootkatensis    cinerascens    aureo- 
discolor  Sudw.,  33. 


116 


Ohamcecyiiaru  iioolkatenxit  cinerasceiis  genuina 

Sudw.,  3:;. 
Chamceeypariii    uuotkateimis    compacta     (Veitcli) 

Heiasn.,  33. 
Chamcecyparit  nuotkatensi.i  compressa  ISeissu.,  33. 
Chamcecyparis 7i<iotkatenii.s  nidlformis Boissu.,  33. 
Cliamcpcyparit  nootkalensiii  pendens  Sudw.,  33. 
Chamcvcyparis  no<4katen»ls  picta  Sudw.,  33. 
Ohatncecyjianx  iKiotkaten.sis  viridifolia  Sudw.,  33. 
Chamcecyparis  iiootkatentis  zanthophylla  Sudw., 

33. 
CHAM.*;cypARis  Ni'TKAiiKSKs  Spach,  32. 

CHAM.^^CVI>AE1S  SIMI^EROinEA  Spach,  32. 
CHAM.i;CYPARIS  THYOIDES  (L.)  B.  S.  I'.,  32. 
Chainfecyparis      thiioldei;     atrovirens      (Knight) 

Sudw.,  32. 
Chamcecyparis    thyoidis   /astiglata    cinereo-folia 

Sudw.,  32. 
ChamcecypaHs  thyoidei  crocea  Sudw.,  32. 
Chamcecyparis  thyoides  ericoides  (Knight)  Sudw., 

32. 
Chamcecyparin  thyoides  glauca  (Endl.)  Sudw.,  32. 
Chamcecyparis  thyoides  hoveyi  (Veitch)  Sudw.,  32. 
Chamcecyparis  thyoides  leptoclada  (Gord.)  Sudw., 

32. 
Cham,cecyparis  thyoides  nana  (Loiul.)  Sudw.,  32. 
Chamcecyparis  thyoides  penduliformis  Sudw.,  32. 
Chamcecyparis  thyoides  pnmila  (Carr.)  Sudw.,  32. 
Chamcecyparis    thyoides    pyramidata     (Beissu.) 

Sudw.,  32. 
Chamcecyj>aris  thyoides  rariegata  (Loud.)  Sudw., 

32. 
CHEIRANTHODENRE^,  8ti. 
CHIIOPSIS  Don.,  109. 
Chilopsis  linearis  (('av.)  Sweet,  109. 
CHIONANTHUS  Limi.,  107. 
Chionanthus  virginica  Linu.,  107. 
CHRYSOBALANUS  Linn..  74. 
Chrysobalanus  icaco  Linn.,  74. 
CHRYSOPHYLLUM  Linn.,  103. 
Chrysophyllum  monopyrenum  Swartz,  103. 
Chkysoi'hyllum  olivikohme  Lam.,  103. 
CHYTRACULIA  Browne,  98. 
Chytraculia  chytraculia  (Linn.)  Sudworth,98. 
Chytraculia  chytraculia  genuina  (Berg.)  Sudw.,  98. 
Chytraf^ulia  chytraculia  ovalis  (Berg.)  .Sudw.,  98. 
Chytraculia  chytraculia  pauciflora  (Berg.)  Sudw.,  98. 
Chytraculia  chytraculia  trichotoma  (Berg.)  Sudw., 

98. 
Chytraculia  chytraculia  zuzygium  (Linn.)  Sudw.,  98. 
CITHAREXYLUM  Linn.,  108. 
Citharexylum  villosum  Jaccj.,  108. 
CLADRASTIS  BaC,  82. 
Cladrastis  lutea  (Miclix.  f.)  Koch,  82. 
Cladkastis  tinctoria  Raf.,82. 
ClIFTONIA  Gartii.  f.,88. 
Cliftd.nia  i.Kir.sTKiNA  Siuis  ex  Sprang.,  88. 
Cliftonia  monophylla  (Lam.)  Sargent,  88. 
Cocc<ii.<)ii.\  Fi.oRiDANA  Meisn.,63. 
COCCOLOBIS  Browne,  63. 
Coccolobis  laurifolia  (.lacq.)  Sargent,  63. 
Coccolobis  uvifera  (Linn.)  Sargent, 63. 
COIUBRINA  Br(.ngn.,96. 
Colubrina  reclinata  (L'ller.)  Brongu.,  96. 
COMBRETACE.ff:,  99. 
CONDALIA  Cav.,95. 
COXDALIA  FERREA  Griseb.,  95. 


Condalia  obovata  Hook.,  95. 

CONOCARPUS  Linn..  99. 

Conocarpus  erecta  Linn., 99. 

Conocarpus  erecta  arborea  de  C..  99. 

Conocarpus  erecta  procumbens  (Linn.)  de  C,99. 

Conocarpus  erecta  sericea  de  C..  99. 

CORNACE.S:,  100. 

CORDIA  Linn.,  108. 

Cordia  boissieri  A.  de  C,  108. 

Cordia  sebestena  Liun.,  108. 

CORNUS  Linn.,  100. 

Cornus  alternifolia  Linn,  f.,  100. 

Cornus  florida  Linn..  100. 

Cornus  jlorida  pendnla  Temple,  100. 

Cornus  Jh)rida  rubra  Temple,  100. 

Cornus  nuttallii  Aud.,  100. 

COTINUS  Adan8..87. 

Cotinus  cotinoides  (Xutt.)  Britton,  87. 

CRATAEGUS  Linu.,  71. 

Crataegus  aestivalis  (AValt.)  Torr.  &  Gr.,  74. 

Crataegus  apiifolia  (Marsh.)  Iblirhx.,74. 

Crataegus  brachyacantha  Sarg.  &  Engelm.,71. 

Crataegus  coccinea  Linn.,  72. 

Crataegus  cordata  (Mill  )  Ait.,  73. 

Crataegus  crus-galli  Linn.,  71. 

Crataegus  crus-galli  angustifolia  (Elir.)  Sudw.,  72. 

Crataegus  crus-galli  berberifolia  (Torr.  &.  Gr.)  Sarg., 

72. 
Crataegus  crus-galli  fontanesiana  (Spach)  Wenz.,  72. 
Crataegus  crus-galli  prunellifolia  (Poir.i  Sudw.,  72. 
Crataegus  crus-galli  prunifolia  (Marsh.)  Torr.  &  Gr., 

72 
Crataegus  crus-galli  salicifolia  (Medic.)  Ait.,  71. 
Crataegus  douglasii  Lindl.,71. 
Crataegus  elliptica  Ait.,  74. 
Crataegus  flava  Ait.,  74. 
Crataegus  macracantha  (Lindl.)  Loud.,  72. 
Crataegus  mollis  (Torr.  &.  tJr.)  .Scheele,  72. 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  Linu.,  72. 
Cratceyus  oxyacantha  apetala  Loud.,  73. 
Cratceyus  oxyacantha  aurea  Loud.,  73. 
Cratceyus  oxyacantha  aurantiaca  Loud.,  73. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  anriculata  Dipp.,  72. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  curtispina  Sudw.,  72. 
Cratceyus  oxyacantha  diversifolia  (Poir.)   Sudw., 

72. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  eriocarpa  Loud.,  73. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  ferox  Dipp.,  72. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  jJexuosa  Loud.,  73.  ^ 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  gratanensis  (Boias.)  Sudw., 

73. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  incisa  Begel,  72. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  laciniata  (Borkh.)  de  C,  72. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  leucocarpa  I^oud.,  73. 
Crataegus    oxyacantha    macrocarpa    (Hcgetseh.) 

Sudw.,  73. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  monogyna  (Jacq.)  Loud.,  72. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  multiplex  Loud.,  73. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  oliveriana  (Poir.)  Load.,  73. 
Cratcegus    oxyacantha    oxyacanthoides    (Thuill.) 

Beich.,72. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  pendula  Loud.,  73. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  pinnatiloba  (Lange.)  Siulw. 

72. 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  prcecox  Loud.,  73. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  punicea  Loud.,  73. 


117 


Cratcegui  oxyacantha  ptaiicea  plena  Sudw.,  73. 
Cratcegui  oxyacaiitha  rusea  Loinl.,73. 
Ciatcegvs  oxyacantUa  ."euipcrflorens  Dipp.,  73. 
Cratagus  oxyacantha  surhi/uUa  (Desf.)  I)iiip.,72. 
Ciatcegv.i  oxyacantha  gplendens  (Kocli)  Smlw..  73. 
CraUfgtis  oxyacantha  stricla  Loud.,  73. 
Cratcegus  oxyacantha  varirgata  (Dipp.)  Sudw.,  73. 
Crat.egvs  I'ARVIFOLIA  Solander  in  Ait.,  74. 
Cfatsegus  punctata  Jacq.,  73. 
Cratsegus  punctata  canescens  Britton.  73. 
('iata--i:ui  imnetata  xanthocarpa  (iledic)  L;iv.,  73. 
Cratte^us  saligna  Greene,  71. 
Crateegus  spathulata  Miclix.,  73. 
Cratsegus  tomentosa  Linn.,  73. 
Crat.*:gi  s  TO.ME.NTO.-^A  var.  mollis  Gray.  72. 
CRAT.Ecfti  TOMENTOSA  var.  PUNCTATA  Gray.  73. 
Crataegus  uniflora  iluencbh.,74. 
Crataegus  viridis  Linn.,  74. 
CRESCENTIA  Linn.,  109. 
Crescentia  crcuRBiTiNA  Linn.,  109. 
Crescentia  ovata  Burin.,  109. 
CTJPRESSUSLinn.,31. 
Cupressus  arizonica  Greene,  32. 
Cupressus  goveniana  Gord.,  31. 
Cupressus goveniana  attenuata,  (Gord.)  Carr.,32. 
Cupiesaus  goveniana  cornuta  Carr.,  32. 
Cvpressus  goveniana  glaucifolia  Sudw.,  31. 
Cupressus  goveniana  gracilis  (S  els.)  Carr.,32. 
Cupressus  gove7iiana  hubcriana  Carr.,  31. 
Cupressus  goveniana  parva  Sudw.,  31. 
Cupressus  goveniana  viridis  Carr.,  32. 
Cupressus  guadalupessis  Sarg.,  not  Wats.,  32. 
Cupressus  macnabiana  Murr..  32. 
Cupressus  macrocarpa  Hartw.,  31. 
Ciipressusn-'Tcrocarpa  angulata  Lenim.,31. 
Cupress^ts  macrocarpa  crippsii  Mast.,  31. 
Cupressus  macrocarpa  lamhertiana  (Carr.)  Mast., 

31. 
CYRIILA  Linn.,  88. 
Cyrilla  racemiflora  Linn.,  88. 
CyRILLACEiE,88. 
DALEA  Willd.,82. 
Ealea  spinosa  Gray,  82. 
DICOTYLEDONES,  39. 
DIOSPYROSLinn.,104. 
Diospyrcs  texana  Scheele,  105. 
Diospyros  virginiana  Linn.,  104. 
DIPHOIIS  A.deC.,104. 
Dipholis  salicifolia  (Linn.)  A.  de  C,  104. 
DRYPETES  Vahl.,86. 
Drypetes  crocea  Poit.,  86. 
Drypetes  keyensis  Urban,  86. 
Drypetes  lateriflora  (Swartz)  Urban  96. 
EBENACE.iE,  104. 
EHRETIA  Browne,  108. 
Ehretia  eUiptica  de  C,  108. 
ERICACiE,  101. 
EUGENIA  Linn.,  98. 
Eugenia  buxifolia  (Swartz)  Willd.,  98 
Eugenia  dichotoma  de  C,  98. 
Eugenia  garberi  Sargent,  99. 
Eugenia  monticola  (Swartz)  de  C.  99. 
Eugenia  pkocera  Sargent,  99. 
Eugenia  procera  (Swartz)  Poir.,99. 
EUPHORBIACEiE,  86. 
EVONYMTISLinn.,89. 


Evonymus  atropurpureus  Jacq    89. 

EXOSTEMA  Kichard,  110. 

Exostema  caribaeum  (Jaiq.)  KotMii.  A,  Scbult.,  110. 

EXOTHEA  M:.cladyen,94. 

Exothea  paniculata  (.Tubs.)  Radlk.,94. 

EYSENHARDTIA  H.  B.  K.,  82. 

Eysenhardtia  ortiiocarpa  (Gray)  Wats..  82. 

FAGACEiE,  50. 

FAGUS  Linn.,  50. 

Fagus  atropunicea  (^larsh.)  Sudwortb,  50. 

Fagus  ferrugixea  Ait..  50. 

FICDS  Linn..  63. 

Ficus  aurea  Nutt  ,  63. 

FlCUS  PEDUXCULAT.*.  Xutt.,63. 

Ficus  populnea  Willd.,  63. 

FRAXINUS  Linn.,  105. 

Fraxinus  americana  Linn.,  106. 

Fraxinusamericanacurtissii  (Tasey)  Sudwortb,  106. 

Fraxinus  americana  var.  microcarpa  Gray.  106. 

Fraxixus  AMERICANA  var.  TEXENSis  Gray,  106. 

Fraxinus  anomala  Wats.,  106. 

Fraxinus  anomala  triphylla  Jones,  106. 

Fraxinus  berlandieriana  A.  de  C,  107. 

Fraxinus  carolimana  Mill  ,  107. 

Fraxinus  cuspidata  Torr.,  105. 

Fraxinus  greggii  Gray,  106. 

Fraxinus  lanceolata  Borkli.,  107. 

Fraxinus  nigra  Mar.sli.,  106. 

Fraxinus  oregona  Xutt.,  107. 

Fraxinus  pennsylvanica  Marsb.,  107. 

Fraxinus  pistaci^folia  Torr.,  106. 

Fra.xixus  platycarpa  Micbs.,  107. 

Fraxinus  profunda  Bnsb,  107. 

Fr.\xinus  pubescexs  Lam.,  107. 

Fraxinus  quadra.ngulata  Micbx.,  106.  . 

Fraxixus  s.^.mbucifolia  Lam.,  106. 

Fraxinus  texensis  (Gray)  Sargent,  106. 

Fraxinus  velutina  Torr.,  106. 

Fraxinus  viridis  Micbx.  f.,  107. 

Fremoxtia  califoenica  Torr.,  86. 

FREMONTODENDRON  CoviUe,  86. 

FremontodendroD  californicum(Torr.)  Coville,86. 

GLEDITSIALinn,,80. 

Gleditsia  aquatica  Marsb.,  80. 

Gleditsia  liUJOTii  Keumann,  80. 

Gleditsia  monosperma  Walt.,  80. 

Gleditsia  triacanthos  Linn.,  80. 

Gleditsia  triacanthos  brachycarpos  Micbx.,  80. 

Gleditsiatriacanthosbtijntii  (Neum.)  nom.  nov.,  80. 

Gleditsia  triacanthos  var.  ixermis  Willd.,  80. 

Gleditsia  triacanthos  Ixvis  (Loud.)  Sudwortb,  80. 

GORDONIA  Ellis,  87. 

Gordonia  altamaha  (Marsb.)  .'^argent,  87. 

Gordonia  lasianthus  (Linn.)  Ellis,  87. 

Gordonia  pubescens  L'Her.,87. 

GUAJACUMLinn.,83. 

Guajacum  sanctum  Linn.,  83. 

GUETTARDA  Vent.,  110. 

Guettarda  elliptica  Swartz,  110. 

GYMINDA  Sargent,  90. 

Gyminda  grisebachii  Sargent,  90. 

Gyminda    grisebachii   glaucifolia    (Griseb.)    Snd 

worth,  90. 
GYMNANTHES  Swartz,  86. 
Gymnanthes  lucida  Swartz,  86. 
GYMNOCLADUS  Lam..  81- 


118 


Gtmitocladus  OANADEirsis  Lam.,  81. 
Gymnocladus  dioicus  (Linn.)  Koch,8L 
GYMNOSPERMiE,  13. 
Ualesia  dipteka  Ellis,  105. 
Halesia  tetbaptkha  Ellis,  105. 
HAMAMELIDACE.I:,  68. 
HAMAMELIS  Linn.,  G8. 
Hamamelis  vir^iniana  Linn.,  68. 
HELIETTA  Tulasue,  84. 
Eelietta  parvifolia  Benth.,  84. 
HETEROMELES  Koein.,74. 
Heteromeles  arbutifolia  (Poir.)  Roem.,  74. 
HICORIA  liaf.,39. 

Hicoria  aquatica  (Micbx.  f.)  Britton,  40. 
Hicoria  alba  (Liun.)  Britton,  41. 
Hicoria  glabra  (Mill.)  Britton,  41. 

lilCoRIA  GLAIiE.\.  VILUL^A  Sarg.,  41. 

Hicoria  laciniosa  (Micbx.  f.)  Sargent,  41. 

Hicoria  minima  (ilarsh.)  Britton,  40. 

Hicoria  myristicseformis  (Miclix.  f.)  Britton,  40. 

Hicoria  odorata  (Marsh.)  Sargent, 41. 

Hicoria  ovata  (Mill.)  Britton,  40. 

Hicoria  paluda  A.slic,  41. 

Hicoria  pecan  (Marsh.)  Britton,  39. 

Hicoria  pecan  X  alba  Trelea.se,  40. 

Hicoria  pecan  X  laciniosa  Trelea8e,40. 

Hicoria  pecan  x  minima  T release,  40. 

Hicoria  villosa  (Sars.)  Ashe,  41. 

HIPPOCASTANACEJE,  93. 

HIPPOMANE  Liuu.,  86. 

Hippomane  mancinella  Linn.,  86. 

HYPELATE  Browne,  95. 

Hypelate  paxiculata  Caiub.,  94. 

Hj'pelate  trifoliata  Swartz,95. 

ICACOREA  Aublct,  103. 

Icacorea  paniculata  (Nutt.)  Sud worth,  103. 

ICHTHYOMETHIA  Browne,  83. 

Ichthyomethia  piscipula  (Linu.)  Kuutze,  83. 

ILEX  Linn.,  89. 

Hex  cassine  Linn.,  89. 

Ilex  ca^SIXE  Walt.,  89. 

Ilex  cassine  angustifolia  Willd.,  89. 

Ilex  cassine  mytifolia  (Walt.)  Sargent, 89. 

Ilex  dahoox  Walt.,  89. 

Ilex  decidua  Walt.,  89. 

Hex  monticola  Gray,  89. 

Ilex  opaca  Ait.,  89. 

Ilex  Tomitoria  Ait.,  89. 

JAGUINIA  Linn.,  103. 

Jaquinia  armillaris  Jacq.,  103. 

JUGLANDACE.S:,  39. 

JUGLANSLinn.,39. 

Juglans  californica  Wats.,  39. 

Juglans  cinerea  Linn., 39. 

Juglans  nigra  Linn.,  39. 

Juglans  rupestris  Engelm.,  39. 

JUNIPERUSLinn.,34.  , 

Juniperus  barbadensis  Linn.,  35. 

Juniperus  californica  Carr.,  36. 

Juniperus  communis  Linn.,  36. 

Juniperus  communis  argyrophylla  Sndw.,  36. 

Juniperus  communis  cracovia  (Koch)  Beiasn.,  36. 

Juniheriif  communis    echinoformis    (Knight) 

Beissn.,  36. 
Juniperus  communit  hemisphcerica  (Presl.)  Pari., 

36. 


Juniperus  communis  hibemica  iLodd.)  Gord.,  36. 
Juniperus  communis  hibemica  compressa  Carr., 

36. 
Junijierus  communis  oblonga  (Bieb.)  Load.,  36. 
Juniperus    communis     oblongo-pendula      (Loud.) 

Carr.,  36. 
Juniperus  communis  pendens  Sudw.,  36. 
Juniperus  communis  pygmma  (Koch)  Sudw.,  36. 
Juniperus  communis  sibirica  (Burgsd.)  Rydberg, 

36. 
Juniperus  communis  suecica  (Mill.)  Loud.,  36. 
Juniperus  communis  vanegata  aurea  Cstrr.,  36. 
Juniperus  flaccida  Schl.-.  36. 
•Juniperna  Knigbtii  Xelson,  '.\'>. 
Juniperus  monosperma  (Engelm.)  Sarg.,  35. 
Juniperus  occidentalis  Hook,  3r>. 
Juniperus  pachyphloea  Terr.,  36. 
Juniperus  sabinoides  (H.  B.  K.)  Sargent,  36. 
Juniperus  scopulorum  Sargent,  35. 
Juniperus  utahensis  (Engelm.)  Lemin.,36. 
Juniperus  virginiana  Linn.,  34. 
Juniperus  virginiaxa  authors  in  part,  not  L..  35. 
Ju7iiperus  virginiana  albo-spica  Beissn.,  35. 
Junipenis  virginiana  albo-variegata  Beissn.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  aurea  superba  Sadw.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  aureo-spica  Beissn.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  aureo-variegata  Veitcb.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  tripartita  aureo-versicolor 

Sudw.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  cannarti  (Koch)  Beissn.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  caroliniana  (Marsh.)  Willd., 

34. 
Juniperus  virginiana  chamberlayni  Carr.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  cinerascens  dirr.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  dumosa  Carr.,  35. 
Jxiniperus  virginiana  elegantissima  Beissn.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  glaucescens  Sudw. ,35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  gracilis  (Endl.)  Sarg.,  34. 
Juniperus  virginiana  horizontaliformis  Sudw.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  interrupta  (Wend.)  Beissn., 

35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  kosteriana  Beissn.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  nutans  Beissn.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  pendula  Carr.,  35. 
Juniperusvirginianaplumosa  alba  (Carr.)  Beissn., 

35. 
Junijicrus  virginiana  plumosa  Candida  Sndw.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana pohjmorpha  Beissn.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  pwnila  Gord.,  35. 
Juniperus    virginiana    pwnila    nivea    (Beissn.) 

Sudw.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  pyramidiformis  Sudw.,  34. 
Juniperus  virginiana  pyramidiformis  glauci/olia 

Sudw.,  34. 
Junipei-us  virginiana  pyramidiformis  viridifolia 

Sudw.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  schoiti  Gord.,  35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  smithi  penduliformis  Sudw., 

35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  triomphe  d'angers  Beissn., 

35. 
Juniperus  virginiana  tripartita  Gord.,  35. 
KALMIA  Linn.,  102. 
Ealmia  latifolia  Linn.,  102. 
KCEBERIINIA  Zncc,  85. 
Eoeberlinia  spinosa  Zucc.   85. 


119 


lAGTJNCUlARIA  G;¥rtn.  f..  99. 

lagunculana  racemosa  (Linn.)  Giertn.  f..  9'.). 

LARIX  Duham.,  20. 

Lakix  AMERICANA  Michx.,'20. 

larix  laricina  (Du  Roi)  Koch.  '20. 

larixlyaUiiParl.,20. 

larix  occidentalis  Nutt.,20. 

LAURACE.5:,  GG. 

LEGU]VriNOS.ff;,  78. 

LEITNERIACEJE,  42. 

LEITNERIA  Chaimi.,  42. 

leitneria  floridana  Chaimi.,  42. 

LEUCENA  Hooker,  79. 

Leucaena  glauca  (Liuu.)Benth.,  79. 

leucsena  pulverulenta  (Schlecht.)  Bentb..79. 

LIBOCEDRUSEn.il. ,29. 

Libocedrus  decurrens  Terr.,  29. 

Libocidrus  decuVretis  columnaris  Beissn.,  29. 

Libocedrug  decurrens  compacta  Beissn.,  29. 

Libocedrus  decurrens  depressa  Gord.,  29. 

I.ibccf'drus  decurrens  glaxica  Beissn.,  29. 

LILIACEJE,  ::8. 

LIQUIDAMBAR  Linn.,  68. 

liquidambar  styraciflua  Linn.,  68. 

IIRIODENDRON  Linn.,  65. 

Liriodendron  tulipifera  Linn.,  65. 

Liriodendron     tulipifera     aureo-maculata     (Art). 

Kew.)  Sudw.,  66. 
Liriodendron  tulipifera  obtusiloba  Michx.,  66. 
Liriodendron  tulipifera  j^enache  Elw.  &  B..  66. 
Liiiodendron  tulipifera pyramidalis  Dipp.,  66. 
lYONOTHAMNUS  Gray, 67. 
Lyonothamnus  floribundus  Gray,  67. 
lYSILOMABentli.,78. 
lysiloma  latisiliqua  (Linn.)  Benth.,  78. 
Maclura  aurantiaca  Kutt.,  63. 
MAGNOLIA  Linn.,  64. 
Magnolia  acuminata  Linn.,  64. 
Magnolia  acuminata  cordata  (Michx.)  Loud.,  65. 
Magnolia  foetida  (Liuu.)  Sargent,  64. 
yiatjnolia  fcetida  amiustifoUa  (Loud.)  Sarg., 64. 
Magnolia  foetida  ferruginea  (Sims)  Sudw.,64. 
Magnolia  foetida  lanceolata  (Ait.)  Sndw.,  64. 
Magnolia  fcetida prcecox  (Loud.)  Sarg.,  64. 
Magnolia  fraseri  "Walt.,  65. 
Magnolia  glauca  Linn.,  64. 
Magnolia  glauca  longifolia  Ait.,  64. 
Magnolia  glaxtca  major  Siius,  64. 
Magnolia  graxdiflora  Linn.,  64. 
Magnolia  macrophylla  Michx.,  65. 
Magnolia  tripetala  Linn  ,  65. 
^^[agn'olia  umbrella  De.srouss.,  65. 
MAGNOLIACEiE,  64. 
MELIA  Linn..  85. 
Melia  azedarach  Linn.,  85. 
Melia  azedarach  umbraculifera  Sargent,  85. 
MELIACEiE,  85. 
MIMUSOPS  Linn.,  104. 
Mimusops  sieberi  A.  de  C,  104. 
MOHRODENDRON  Britton,  105. 
Mohrodendron Yiarolinum  (Linn.)  Britton,  105. 
Mohrodendron  carolinum  meehani  (Sarg.)  nom.  nov., 

105. 
Mohrodendron  dipterum  (Ellis)  Britton,  105. 
MONOCOTYLEDONES,  37. 
MORACiE,  62. 
MORTIS  Linn.,  62. 


Morus  alba  Linn.,  62. 

Moms  alba  conKtantinopolitana  (Poir.)  Loud.,  62. 

Morus  alba  ntacropliiilla  (Moretti)  Loud.,  62. 

Morus  alba  niiUticaulis  (I'arr.)  Luud..  62. 

Morus  alba  pendula  (Dipp.)  Sudw.,62. 

Morus  alba p;i rami dalis  Seriuge,  62. 

Morus  alba  rosea  Loud.,  62. 

Morus  alba  tatarica  (Linn.)  Loud.,  62. 

Morus  alba  renosa  Delile,  62. 

Miirus  alha  rulgaris  tokwa  (Sieb.)  Bur.,  62. 

Morus  celtidifolia  H.  B.  K.,  62. 

Morus  rubra  Linn.,  62. 

Myginda  palle.ns  Sniitli  fx  Sargent,  90. 

MYRICA  Linn., 42. 

Myrica  californica  Chan).,  42. 

Myrica  cerifera  Linn.,  42. 

Myrica  inodora  Ilartr.,42. 

MYRICAOE.S;,42. 

MYRSINACE.ff;,  103. 

MYRTACE.ff:,  98. 

Nectandra  willdenoviana  Meisner,  67. 

Negunijo  aceroides  Moencb.,93. 

Keguxdo  CALiFORXicuM  Torr.  &  Gr.,  93. 

KEOWASHINGTONIA  Sudworth,  38. 

Neowashingtonia  filamentosa  (Wend.)  Sudw.,  38. 

NYCTAGINACE.ff:,  04. 

NYSSA  Linn.,  100. 

Nyssa  aquatica  Linn.,  101. 

Kyssa  aquatica  Linu.,  101. 

Nyssa  biflora  "Walt.,  101. 

Nyssa  capitata  Walt.,  101. 

Ny'.-sa  .mcltifloba  "Wang.,  100. 

Nys&a  ogeche  Marsh.,  101. 

Nyssa  sylvatica  Marsh.,  100. 

Kyssa  sylvatica  pendcla  (Temple)  Sudw.,  101 

Nyssa  uniflora  Wang.,  101. 

OCOTEA  Aublet,67. 

Ocotea  catesbyana  (Michs.)  Sargent,  67. 

OLEACE.E,  105. 

OLNEYA  Gray,  83. 

Olneya  tesota  Gray,  83. 

OPTJNTIAMill.,97. 

Opuntia  fulgida  Engelni.,  97. 

Opuntia  fulgida  mammillata  (Scott)  Coult.,  97. 

Opuntia  sponsior  (Engelm.)  Toumey,98. 

Opuntia  sponsior  neomexicana  Toumey,  98. 

Opuntia  versicolor  Engelm.,  98. 

OREODOXA  "Willd.,38. 

Oreodoxa  regia  H.  B.  K.,  38. 

OSMANTHUS  Laureiro.  108. 

Osmanthus  americanus  (Linn.)   Benth.    &.  Hook. 

108. 
OSTRYA  Scop.,  50. 
Ostrya  knowltoni  Coville,  50. 
Ostrya  virginiana  (Mill.)  Koch.,  50. 
OXYBENDRUM  de  C,  102. 
Oxydendrum  arboreum  (Linn.)  de  C,  102. 
PALMACEiE,37. 
PARKINSONIA  Linn.,  81. 
Parkinsonia  aculeata  Linn.,  81. 
Parkinsonia  microphylla  Torr.,  81.  yj 

PaUKIXSDMA  TORliEYAXA  "^^''■^"     "'  1^—    f^ 

PAUiflWNlA  Sub.  ic  y-uccloM.  •     /./ 

Paulownia  tomentosa  (Thunb.)  Steudel,  109. 
PERSEA  Gaertn.  f.,66. 
Persea  borbonia  (Linn.)  Spreng.,66. 

PEBSEA  CAROLINKN8I8  Nees,  66. 


120 


Peksea  carolinensis  var.  palustris  Chapm.,66. 

Persea  pubescens  (Pursli)  Sargent,  66. 

PICEA  Link,  2(1. 

I'icEA  ALHA  Link,  2L 

Picea  breweriana  AVats.,22. 

Picea  canadensis  (Mill.)  15.  S.  I'.,  21. 

J'i>fa  canathiLsis  acutitxima  (Uci».sn.)  Siidw..  LI. 

Picea  canaUensit  avrea  (Bfi.ssu.)  Suilw.,  21. 

Picea    canadennt    compacta    gracilis    (Beissn.) 

Siidw.,21. 
I'icea  canadensis  compietsa  (Beissu.)  Sudw.,  21. 
Picea  canadensis  compresxiformis  Sudw.,  21. 
Picea  canadensis  echino/onii is  (Carr.)  Sudw.,  21. 
Picea  canadensis  glauca  (Mm-ncli.)  Sudw.,  21. 
Picea  canadensis  nana  (Loud.)  Sudw.,  21. 
Picea  canadensis  nana  ylaucifolia  Sudw.,  21. 
Picea  canadensis  nutans  Sudw.,  21. 
Pirea  coluujbiaiia  Lemm.,  21. 
Picea  engelmanni  Engelm.,  21. 
Picea  engelmanni  argyrophylla  Sudw.,  21. 
I'icea  engilmann!  grisei/olia  Sudw.,  21. 
Picea  engelmanni  niinutifolia  Sudw.,  21. 
Picea  mariana  (Mill.)  B.  S.  P..  20. 
Picea  mariana  albescens  Sudw.,  20. 
Picea  jnariana  argenteovarieyata  (Beissu.)  Sudw.. 

20. 
Picea  mariana  aurescins  Sudw.,  20. 
Picea  mariana  doumetti  (Cair.)  Beissn.,^. 
Picea  mariana  hiimilts  Sudw.,  20. 
Picea  mariana  pumila  (Carr.)  Sudw..  20. 
Picea  xifiRA  Link,  20. 
Picea  parryana  (Andre)  Parry,  21. 
Picea  par ryana  aryentea  (Beissu.)  noiu.  nov.,  22. 
Picea  parryana  cyanra  uoui.nov.,  22. 
Picea  parryana  glniica  i)endins  nom.  nov.,  22. 
Picea  jiarryana  glaucescens  nom.  nov.,  22. 
PlCE.V  PCNGENS  Eugeliu.,  21. 
PiC'EA  PUNGEXS  ARGE.VTEA  BeiSSU.,  22. 

Picea  pcxgens  cyanea  Sudw.,  22. 

Picea  puxoens  glauca  i-exdexs  Sudw.,  22. 

PKEA  PrXGENS  GLArCESCE.\>  Sndw.,22. 

Picea  rubens  Sargent,  21. 

Picea.  ruhins  coernlea  (Loud.)  nom.  nov.,  21. 

Picea  rubens  gracilis  (Knight)  nom.  nov  ,21. 

Picra  ruhens pendula  (Carr.)  nom.  nov.,  21. 

Picea  uubra  Diet.,  21. 

PiCEA  RUBRA  ciERULEA  (Loud.)  Forbes,  21. 

Picea  rubra  (iRAfii.is  (Knight)  Carr.,  21. 

PicE.\  rubra  pexdui.a  Carr.,  21. 

Picea  sitchensis  (Bong.)  Trantv.  &,  Mayer, 22. 

PINCKNEYA  :Michx..  110. 

Pinckreya  pubens  Miclix.,  110. 

PINACEiE,  i:;. 

PINUS  Linn.,  lo. 

Pinus  albicaulis  Engi-lm.,  14. 

Pinus  apacheca  Lenimon,  16. 

Pinus  eristata  Engelm.,  15. 

Pinus  arizonica  Engelm.,  15. 

Pinus  attenuata  Lemmon,  17. 

Pinus  bs'f'ouriana  M\irr.,  15. 

Pinus  baxksiaxa  Lamb.,  )0 

Pinus  cembroides  Zucc,  14. 

Pinus  chihuahuana  Engelm.,  16. 

Pinus  contorta  Loud..  16. 

Pinus  coulteri  Lamb.,  16. 

Pinus  clausa  (Engelm.)  Sargent,  18. 

PiNVS  CtTBENSis  Griseb.,  19. 


Pinus  divarieata  (Ait.)  Pu  Mont  de  Cour9..19. 

Pinus  echinata  Mill.,  18. 

Pinus  edulis  Engelm.,  14. 

Pinus  flexilis  Jauies,  14. 

Pinus  glabra  Walt..  19.  f     k 

Pinus  heterophylla  (Ell.)  Sudworth.  19>-t^Af  «tX4^ 

Pixu.s  ixops  Solander  ex  Ait..  18. 

Pixus  ixsioNis  Douglas  in  herb.  e\  Loudon.  17 

Pinus  jeffreyi  "Oreg.  Com.."  16. 

Pinus  lambertiana  Dougl..  14. 

PiNu.s  latifolia  Sarg.,  not  of  authors.  16. 

Pinus  mayriana  Sudworth,  16. 

PtNUS  MITIS  Miclix..  18. 

Pinus  monophylla  Ton-.  &  Fn-m.,  15. 

Pinus  monticola  Dougl..  13. 

Pinus  muricata  Don.,  18. 

Pinus  murrayana  "  Oreg.  Com.,"  16. 

Pinus  palustris  Mill.,  19. 

I'lXUs  PARRYAXA  Engelm..  14. 

Pinus  ponderosa  Laws.,  15. 

Finns ponderosa  pindiili/ormis  Sudw.,  16. 

Pinus  ponderosa  scopulorum  Engelm..  15. 

Pinus  pungens  Miclix.  1'..  18. 

Pinus  quadrifolia  Pari.,  14. 

Pinus  radiata  Don..  17. 

Pinus  ladiata  binnata  {Engelm.)  Lennn.,  17 

Pinus  resinosa  Ait.,  15.     « 

Pinus  rigida  Mill..  17. 

Pinus  sabiniana  Dougl.,  16. 

Pinus  serotina  Miclix.,  18. 

Pinus  strobiformis  Enaelm..  14. 

Pinus  strobus  Linn.,  13. 

Pinus  sirobus  axii-ea  Carr..  13. 

Pinus  strob^lS  brevifolia  Loud.,  13. 

Finns  strobus  fastigiata  (Koch)  Beissn.,  13 

Pinus  strobus  gracili/olia  Sudw.,  13. 

Pinus  strobus  minima  Lei.ssn.,  13. 

Pintis  strobus  nivca  (Knight)  Carr..  13. 

Pinus  strobus prostrata  Hort.  Kew,  13. 

Finns  strobus  nmbracullfi  ra  Knight,  13. 

Pinus  strobus  uni/olia  nom.  nov.,  13. 

Finns  strobus  variegata  Carr.,  13. 

Finns  strobus  viridis  Carr.,  13. 

Finns  strobus  zebrina  Beissn.,  13. 

Pinns  taxifolia  Salisbury,  23. 

Pinus  tseda  Li'in..  17. 

Pinus  torreyana  Parry,  15. 

Pinus  tuberculata  Gord.,  17. 

Pinus  virginiana  Mill.,  18. 

Pi.sciDiA  erythrixa  Linn..  83. 

PISONIA  Linn.,64. 

Pisonia  obtusata  Jacq..  64. 

Pithecolobium  brevifolium  Benth.,78. 

PiTHECOLOBIUM  UNGUIS-CATI  Benth.,78. 

PIANERA  Gmelin,61. 

Planera  aquatica  (Walt.)  Gmel..61. 

PLATANACE^,  68. 

PLATANUS  Linn.,  68. 

Platanus  occidentalis  Linn.,  68. 

Platanus  racemosa  Nutt.,68. 

Platanus  wrightii  "Wats.,  69. 

POLYGOWACEJE,  63. 

POPULUS  Linn.,  45. 

Popul""  acuminata  IJydberg,  46. 

Populus  alba  Linu.,  47. 

Populus  alba  bolleana  Lauche,  47. 

Populus  alba  canescens  (Smith)  Loud.,  47 


121 


PopuluB  alba  cane.iceiix  timbraciill/era  Sudw.,  47. 

Populus  alba  ijlobosa  Dipp.,  47. 

Popuhts  alba  nivea  (Willd.)  Loiul.,47. 

P(}piilus  alba  iivta»s  Sudw.,  47. 

Fopulus  angustifolia  James,  46. 

Populus  balsamifera  Linn.,  46. 

Populus  balsamifera  candicans  (Ait.)  Gray,  46. 

Populvs  balsavti/i'ia  intermedia  Loud., 46. 

Pojiulim  balsami/irci  latifolia  (Mcpncli.)  Loud.,  46. 

Pojnilus  balsa  III  i/i'ra  vimiiiali.i  Loud.,  46. 

Populus  deltoides  Marsh.,  46. 

Popvius  deltoides  atirea  (Nicliol.)  Sudw..  47. 

I'lipiihis  deltoides  crispa  {Dip]).)  Sudw.,  47. 

Pojivlug  deltoides  rrecta  (Sely.s)  Sudw.,  47. 

Populus  fremontii  Wats.,  47. 

Popuhis  freniontii  rac.  "Wislizeni  TraY.5.,47. 

Populus  grandidentata  Miclix.,  45. 

Poj'vlns  giaiididintata  penduliformis  Sudw.,  45. 

Populus  heterophylla  Linu.,  45. 

POPI-LVS  MONILIFERA  Ait.,  46. 

Populus  nigra  Linn.,  47. 

Poptdus  nigra  elegans  Bailey,  47. 

I'opvlus  nigra  italica  Du  Pioi,  47. 

Populus  tremuloides  Michx.,  45. 

Populus  treinuloideg  jiendens  Sudw.,  45. 

Populus  trichoearpa  Torr.  &  Gr.,46. 

PROSOPIS  Linu.,  79. 

Prosopis  juliflora  (Swartz)  de  C,  79. 

Prosopis  odorata  Torr.  &  Freui.,  79. 

Prosopis  pubescens  Benth.,79. 

PRUNUSLinn.,75. 

Prunus  allegheniensis  Porter.  75. 

Prunus  amencana  Marsh.,  75. 

Prunus  americana  lanata  Sudworth,  75. 

Prunus  angustifolia  Marsh.,  75. 

Prunus  avium  Linu.,  76. 

Prixus  CAPi'Li  Cav.,  77. 

Prunus  caroliniana  (Mill.)  Ait.,  77. 

Prunus  cerasus  Linn.,  76. 

Pruxls  chicasa  >nchx.,75. 

Prunus  demissa  (Nutt.)  AYalp.,77. 

Prunus  emarginata  (Dougl.)  Walp.,  76. 

Prunus  emarginata  villosa  Sudworth,  V6. 

Prunis   emarginata  Tar.  mollis  Brewer,   not 

Torr.,  76. 
Prunus  hortulana  Bailey,  75. 
Prunus  hortulana  mineri  Bailey.  75. 
Prunus  ilicifolia  (Nutt.)  "Walp.,  78. 
Prunus  icilifoha  integrifolia  Sudworth,  78. 
Prunus  inJHcnnda  Small.  76. 
Prunus  mahaleb  Linn.,  76. 
Prunus  nigra  Ait.,  75. 
Prunus  pennsylvanica  Liun.  f.,  76. 
Prunus  persica  (Linn.)  Stokes,  78. 
Prunus  salicifolia  H.  B.  K.,  77. 
Prunus  serotina  Ehrh.,  77. 
Prunus  serotina  asplenifolia  Dipp.,  77. 
Prunus  serotina  neomontana  Sudworth,  77. 
Prunus  serotina  pendnliformis  Sudw..  77. 
Prunus  sphaerocarpa  Swartz.  77. 
Prunus  subcordata  Benth.,  75. 
Prunus  umbellata  Ell..  76. 
Prunus  virgimana  Liun.,  76. 
Prtmtti  virginiana  leiicoearpta  Wats.,  77. 
Prunus  virginiana  nayia  (Uu  Roi)  Dipp.,  77. 
Prunus  virginiana  pendens  Sudw.,  77. 


PSEUDOPHffiNIX  Wendl..  37. 
Pseudophoenix  Sargentii  Weiul  .  :i7. 
PSEUDOTSUGA  Can., 23. 
PsEUDOTSrOA  DOUfiLA.^Il  CaiT.,  2;t. 
Pseudotsuga  macrocarpa  (Torr.)  Mavr.  25. 
Pseudotsuga  niucrouata  rar.  palustris  Lemm..  24. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  (Laui.)  Britton,  23.  . 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  argentea  (Bei.ssu.)  Sudw.,  25. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  argentea  densa  Sudw.T25. 
Pseudotsuga     taxifolia    brevifolia    (Hort.    Kew.) 

Sudw.,  25. 
Pieiidotsuga  taxifolia  compacta  (Beissn.)  Sudw., 

25. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  dumosa  (Carr)  Sudw..  25. 
Pseudot.iuga  taxifolia  elegans  (Beissn.)  Sudw.,  25. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  fastigiata  (Knight)  Siulw., 

24. 
I'setidotsuga  taxifolia  glauca  ( Beissn.)  Sudw.,  24. 
Pseudotsuga     taxifolia     pendula    (Engelm.i    Sud- 
worth, 24. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  pendula  cairulea  Sudw.,  24. 
Pseudotsuga   taxifolia     revoluta     (Hort.    Kew.) 

Sudw.,  25; 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  stairi  (Beissn.)  Sudw..  25. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  .<tt(i ndishiana  (Gord.)  Sudw., 

25. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  variegata  (McDon.)tSudw., 

2.5. 
Pseudot.suga  taxifolia  var.  suberosa  Lemm.,  24. 
PTEIEA  Linn.,  84. 
Ptelea  trifoliata  Linn.,  84. 
Ptelea  trifoliata  avrea  Xich.,  84. 
PYRUS  Linn..  69. 
Pyrus  americana  (Marsh.)  de  U.,  70. 
Pyrus  angustifolia  Ait.,  70. 

Pyrus  americana microcarpa(Piirsh)  Torr.  &.tTr.,70 
Pyrus  coronaria  Linu.,  69. 
Pyrus  ioensis  (Wood)  Bailey.  70. 
Pyrus  roalus  Linn.,  70. 
Pyrus  rivi'laris  Dougl.,  7o. 
Pyrus  sambucifolia  Cham,  i  Schl..  70. 
Pyrus  soulardi  Bailey,  70. 
aUERCUS  Linu.,  51. 
Quercus  acuminata  (Michx.)  Houha.  53. 
ftuercus  agrifolia  Xt-e,  55. 
Guercus  alba  Linn..  51. 
Guercus  alba X macrocarpa  Engelni.,51. 
Quercus  albaXminor  Coulter.  51. 
Quercus  albaXprinus  Engelin.,51. 
Quercus  aquatica  Walt.,  58. 
Quercus  arizonica  Sargent,  .54. 
QUERCUS  BICOLOK  Willd.,  53. 
Quercus  brevifolia  (Lam.)  Sargent,  58. 
Quercus  breviloba  (Torr.)  Sargent.  54. 
Quercus  breweri  Eugelni.,52. 
Quercus  brittoni  Davis,  58. 
Guercus  californica  (Torr.)  Cooji.,  57, 
Quercus  catesbaei  Michx.,  57. 
Guercus  catesbsei,--  brevifolia  Sudw.,  57. 
Quercus  catesbaei  x  laurifolia  Engelni..  .57. 
Quercus  chapmani  Sargent,  52. 
Quercus  chrysolepis  Liebra..  55. 
Quercus  chrysolepis  palmeri  Engelm.,  55. 
Quercus  chrysolepis  vaccinifolia  (Kell.)  Engelm.,  55. 
QVERCCS  CIXEREA  Michx.,58. 
Quercus  coccinea  Muenchh.,  56. 


122 


Quercus  coccinea  'pumila  Sud worth,  56. 
Quercus  densiflora  Hook.  &  Am.,  59. 
Quercus  densiflora  echinoides  (R.  Br.  Cauipst.)  Sar- 
gent, 59. 
Quercus  digitata  (Mar.sh.)  Sud  worth,  57. 
Quercus  digitata  X  velutina  Sudworth,  57. 
Quercus  douglasii  Hook.  &  Arc,  54. 
Quercus  dumosa  Nutt.,  54. 
Quercus  dumosa  revoluta  Sargeut,  54. 
QuEKcrs  DiKANDU  ISuckl.,  54. 
Quercus  emoryi  Torr.,  55. 
Quercus  engelmanni  Greene,  54. 
l^)UERCUS  F.\LCATA  Michx.,  57. 
Quercus  gambelii  Nutt.,  52. 
Quercus  garryana  Dongl.,  52. 
(.Quercus  geniiiiata  .s'moH,  55. 
Quercus  georgiana  Curtis,  58. 
Quercus  georgiana  ■  marilandica  Sargent,  58. 
Quei-cus  heterophylla  Michx.  f.,  59. 
Quercus  hypoleuca  Kngelni.,  55. 
(,)rEi(rus  iLiciFOLiA  Wang.,  57. 
Quercus  imbricaria  Aliclix.,  58. 
Quercus  imbricaria    '  palustris  Engelm.,59. 
Quercus  laurifolia  >[ichx.,58. 
Quer6us  leana  Nutt.,  59. 
Quercus  lobata  iS'6i',  51. 
Quercu^  lyrata  M' alt. ,52. 
Quercus  macrocarpa  Michx.,  52. 
Quercus  marilandica  Muenchh.,58. 
Quercus  marilandica  X  velutina  Bush.  ."i8. 
Quercus  michauxii  Nutt.,  .53. 
Quercus  michauxii  X  macrocarpa  Sudworth,  54. 
Quercus  minor  (Marsh.)  Sargent, 52. 
Quercus  morehus  Kell.,  56. 
Quercus  myrtifolia  Willd.,  56. 
Quercus  nigra  Linn..  58. 
(^LEK<  I's  NiGKA  of  autliors,  not  of  L.,58. 
Quercus  oblongifolia  Torr.,  54. 
Quercus  obtdsiloba  Michx.,  52. 
Quercus  palustris  Muenchh.,57. 
Quercus  phellos  Linn.,  ,59. 
Quercus  phellos  X  digitata  Small,  59. 

Ql'KRCUS  I'lIELI-dS   ,      NIGRA   Bfitt.,  59. 

Quercus  phellos  X  pumila  Sudworth,  59. 

QCERCU.S  PHELLO.s  X  Ti.NCTORiA  Gray,  59. 

Quercus  platanoides  (Lam.)  Sudworth, 53. 

Quercus  prinoides  AVilld.,53. 

Quercus  prinus  Liun.,53. 

Quercus  pumila  (Marsh.)  .Sudworth,  57. 

Quercus  reticulata  ITumh.  &  Bonpl.,54. 

Quercus  rubra  Linn.,  50. 

Q  ercus  rubra  runcinata  A.deC.,50. 

Quercus  sinuata  (Lam.)  Walt.,  57. 

Quercus  subimbricaria  (de  C.)  Sudworth,  59. 

Quercus  texana  F.uckl.,56. 

(,trER(;us  TiNCTORiA  Bartr.,  56. 

Quercus  tomentella  Engelm.,55. 

Quercus  toumeyi  Sargent,  54. 

Quercus  tridentata  (de  C.)  Engelm.,  59. 

Quercus  undulata  Torr.,  54. 

Qr ERCUS  UNDULATA  a  Gambelii  Engelm.,  52. 

Quercus  velutina  Lam.,  56. 

Quercus  vikens  Ait.,  55. 

Quercus  virginiana  Mill.,  55. 

Quercus  wislizeni  A.  de  C,  56. 

REYN0SIAGri8eb.,95. 


Reynosia  latifolia  Griseb.,  9."i. 

RHAMNACEJE,  95. 

RHAMNIDIUM  Keissek,  95. 

Rhamnidium  ferreum  (Vahl)  Sargent,  95. 

RHAMNUS  Linn.,  95. 

Rhamnus  caroliniana  Walt.,  95. 

Rhamnus  crocea  Nutt.,  95. 

Rhamnus  crocea  insularis  (Greene)  Sargent,  95. 

Rhamnus  pirifolia  Greene,  95. 

Rhamnus  purshiana  de  C.  96. 

RHIZOPHORA  Linn.,  98. 

Rhizophora  mangle  Linn.,  98. 

RHIZOPHORACE.ff;,  98. 

RHODODENDRON  Linn.,  102. 

Rhododendron  catawbiense  Michx.,  103. 

Rhododendron  maximum  Linn.,  102. 

Rlwdodendron  maximu'in  album  Pursh,  103. 

Rhododendron  tnaximum  purpureum  Pursh,  103. 

Rhododendron  maximum  ro.ietim  Pursh,  103. 

RHUS  Linn.,  87. 

Rhus  copallina  Linn.,  88. 

Rhus  copallina  lanceolata  Gray,  88. 

Rhus  capoUina  leucantha  (Jacq.)  de  C.,88. 

llHU.S  COTINOIDES  Nutt.,  87. 

Rhus  hirta  (Linn.)  Sudworth,  87. 

Rhus  integrifolia  (Nutt.)  Benth.  (t  Hook.,  88. 

Rhus  metopium  Linn.,  87. 

Rhus  typhixa  Linn.,  87. 

Rhus  venenata  de  C,  88. 
Rhus  vernix  Linn.,  88. 
ROBINIALinn.,82. 
Rohhiia  bella-rosea  Nichol.,  83. 

Robinia  dubia  Fouc,  83. 

Robinia  neomexicana  Gray.  83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  Linn.,  82. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  ampli/olia  Sudw.,  82. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  angtisti/olia  (hovn\.)  Lav.,  82. 

Robinia inevdacacia  aurea  (Koch)  Dipi).,83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia    argenteo-varieijata   (Koch) 
Sudw.,  83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  crispa  de  C,  82. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  decaisneana  Carr.,  82. 

Robinia pseitdO'Cacia  dissecta  (Koch)  Sarg.,83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  glaucescens  Koch,  83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  inertnis  (Jacq.)  Sudw.,  83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  latisiliqua  Loud.,  83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  monophylla  Petz.  &  Kirchn., 
82. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  pendula  (Ortega)  Loud.,  83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  purpurea  Dipp.,  83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia pyramidalis  Petz.  &  Kirchn., 
83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  spectabilis  (I>u  Mont  Cour.) 
Koch,  83. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  tortuosa  (Hoffm.)  de  C.,82. 

Robinia  viscosa  Vent.,  83. 

Robinia  viscosa  albijlora  Dipp., 83. 

R0SACE.S:,6!l. 

RUBIACE.iE,  110. 

RUTAOEiE,  84. 

SABAL  Adan.s.,37. 

Sabal  mexicana  Mart.,  37. 

Sabal  palmetto  (Walt.)  Roem.  &.  Sch.,37. 

SALICACEiE,  42. 

SALIX  Linn.,  42. 

Salix  alba  Linn.,  45. 


123 


Salix  alba   -    lucida  Rebb,  45 

Salix  amygdaloides  Anderss.,  4."?. 

Salix  babylonica  Linu.,  45. 

Salix  bebbiana  Sar<;eut,  44. 

Salix  bonplandiana  H.  B.  K.,  43. 

Salix  cordata  lutea  (Nutt.)  Bebb,  44. 

Salix  cordata  mackenzieana  Ilook.,  44. 

Salix  cordata  var.  n-estit.a  Sargent,  ii«t  Tursli, 

44. 
Salix  discolor  Maebl..  44. 

Salix  discolor  eriocephala  (Michx.)  Ander88^44. 
Salix  discolor  prinoides  (Pnr.sli)  Aiiders8.,44. 
Salix  flavescexs  Nutt.,  44. 
Salix  fluviatilis  Nutt.,  43. 

Salix  fluviatilis  argyrophylla  (Nutt.)  Sargent,  43. 
Salix  fluviatilis  exigua  (Nutt.)  Sargent,  43. 
Salix  fragilis  Linn.,  45. 
Salix  hookeriana  Barratt,  44. 
Salix  l»vigata  Bebb,  43. 
Salix  laevigata  angustifolia  Bebb,  43. 
Salix  laevigata  congesta  Bebb,  43. 
Salix  lasiandra  Bentb.,  43. 
Salix  lasiandra  caudata  (Nutt.)  Sudworth,  43. 
Salix  lasiandra  lyalli  Sargent,  43. 
Salix  lasiolepis  Benth.,  44. 
Salix  loxgifolia  Mnebl.,43. 
Salix  lucida  Miiehl.,  43. 
Salix  missouriensis  Bebb,  44. 
Salix  nigra  Marsh.,  42. 
Salix  nigra      alba  Bebb,  42. 
Salix  nigra  ■  amygdaloides  Glatf.,  42. 
Salix  nigra  falcata  (Pur.sh)  Torr.,  42. 
Salix  nuttallii  Sargent,  44. 

Salix  nuttallii  brachystachys  (Bentb.)  Sargent,  44. 
Salix  occidentalis  longipes  (Anderss.)  Bebb,  43. 
Salix  piperi  Bebb,  44. 
Salix  ro.str.\ta,  Eich.,  44. 
Salix  sessilifolia  Nutt.,  44. 
Salix  sitchensis  Sans.,  45. 
Salix  taxifolia  H.  B.  K.,  44. 
Sahx  wardi  Bebb,  42. 
SAMBUCUS  Linn..  110. 
Sambucus  callicarpa  Greene,  110. 
Sambucus  glauca  Nutt.,  110. 
Sambucus  mexicana  Pres).,  110. 
SAPINDACE.S;,  94. 
SAPINDrrSLinn.,94. 
Sapindus  marginatus  Willd.,94. 
Sapindus  saponaria  Linn.,  94. 
SAPIUM  Browne.  86. 
Sapium  sebiferum  Roxb.,  86. 
SAP0TACE.5:,  103. 
SASSAFRAS  Nees  &  Eberni.,  67. 
Sassafras  officinale  Nees  &.  Eberm.,  67. 
Sassafras  sassafras  (Linn.)  Karst.,67. 
SAXIFRAGACEiE,  67. 
SCHJEFFERIA  Jacq.,  90. 
Schaefferia  frutescens  Jacq.,  90. 
SCROPHULARIACE.S:,  109. 
Sebastiana  lucida  Muell.,  86. 
SEaUOIA  Endl.,28. 
Sequoia  gigantea  Decai.sne,  28. 
Sequoia  sempervirens  (Lamb.)  Endl.,  28. 
Sequoia  sempervirens  adpressa  Carr.,  29. 
Sequoia  sempervirens  albo-sjnca  (Gord.)  Beissn.,  29. 
Sequoia  tempervirens  glauca  Gord.,  29. 


Sequoia  sempervirens  gracilis  Carr.,  29. 
Sequoia  sempervirens  pitta  Sudw.,  29. 
Sequoia  sempervirens  taxifolia  Carr.,  29. 
Sequoia -washingtoniana  (Winsl.)  Sudworth,  28. 
Sequoia  irashingtoniana  argentea  (Beissn.)  Sudw., 

28. 
Sequoia  w  ashing  toniaiia  aurea  (Beissn.)  Sudw.,  28. 
Sequoia  vashingtoniana  glauca  (Gord.)  Sudw.,  28. 
Sequoia    ivaMngtoniana    glaucescens  pyramido- 

compacta  Sudw.,  28. 
Sequoia  tvashingtoniana  holmti  (Beissn.)  ^udw., 

28. 
Sequoia  washingtoniana  pendula  (Beissn.)  Sudw., 

28. 
Sequoia  washingtoniana pygmcea  (Beissn.)  Sudw., 

28. 
Sequoia  washingtoniana  var^egata  (Gord.)  Sudw., 

28. 
Sequoia  Wellingtonia  Seeman,  28. 
SIMAROUBACEiE,  85. 
SIDEROXTLON  Linn.,  103. 
Sideroxylon  mastichodendron  Jacq.,  103. 
SIMAROUBA  Aublet,85. 
Simarouba  glauca  de  C,  85.    • 
SOPHORALinn.,81. 
Sophora  aflSnis  Torr.  &  Gr.,  81. 
Sophora  secundiflora  (Cav.)  de  C.,81. 
Stillinqia  sebiferum  Michx.,  86. 
STYRACACE.5;,  105. 
SWIETENIA  Jacq.,86. 
Swietenia  mahagoni  Jacq.,  86. 
STMPLOCACE.E,  105. 
SYMPLOCOS  Jacq.,  105. 
Symplocos  tinctoria  (Linn.)  L'Her.,  105. 
TAXACE5],  36. 
TAXODIUMRich.,27. 
Tasodium  distichum  (Linn.)  Rich.,  27. 
Taxodium  distichum  denudatum  Carr.,  27. 
Taxodium'  distichum  imbricarium  (Nutt.)  Sarg., 

27. 
Taxodium  distichum  iiitermedium  Carr.,  28. 
Taxodium  distichum  knighti  Carr.,  27. 
Taxodixim distichum m^icropJiyllum  (Brong.)  Henk. 

and  Hochst.,  28. 
Taxodium  distichum  nanum  Carr.,  28. 
Taxodium  distichum  nigrum  Gord.,  28. 
Taxodium  distichum  patens  (Ait.)  EndL,27. 
Taxodium  distichum  pendulum  (Forb.)  Carr.,  27. 
Taxodium  distichum  pendulum  elegans  Beissn.,  27. 
Taxodium  distichum  pendulum  novum  Beissn.,  27. 
Taxodium  distichum  pyramidatum  Carr.,  27. 
Taxodium  Washingtonianum  TTukJow,  28. 
TAXUSLinu.,37. 
Taxus  brevifolia  Nutt.,  37. 
Taxus  floridana  Nutt.,  37. 
TERMINALIA  Benth.  &  Hook.,  99. 
Terminalia  buceras  (Browne)  Benth.  &.  Hook.,  99. 
THEACEiE,  87. 
THRINAX  Linu.  f.,  37. 
Thrinax  microcarpa  Sargent,  37. 
Thrinax  parviflora  Swartz,  37. 
THUJA  Linn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  Linn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  alba  Gord.,  31. 
Thuja  occidentalis  albo-variegata  Beissn.,  31. 
Thuja  occidentalis  argentea  Gord.,  31. 


124 


Thtija  vcci(Untalis  atplenifolia  Carr.,  :iO. 

Thuja  occidentalig  athrotaxoidet  Beissn.,  30. 

Thuja  occidentalis  aurea  Gord.,  30. 

Thuja  occideiHalin  aureo-rarieijata  Beissn.,  31. 

Thvja  occidentalig  bodmeri  Beissn..  30. 

Thtija  occidentalis  boothi  Beissn.,  30. 

Thuja  occidentalis  crietata  fiord.,  30. 

Thuja  occidcntaliii  denna  Gord.,  30. 

Thuja  occidentalis  denudata  Bei.ssn.,  30. 

Thuja  oceidentaUs  ellwangeriana  (Gord.)  Beissn., 

30. 
Thvja  occidentoU.i  fagtigiata  J}ei8sn.,30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  fastigiata  nova  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  JiUcoides  Beissn.,  30. 
Thvja  occidentalig  fniheli  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  ylohosn  Gord.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalig  globularis  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalingracilig  Gord.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  hoveyi  Gord.,  30. 
ITiuja  occidentalis  Vhaveana  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  little-gem  Beis.sn.,  31. 
Thvja  occidentalis  lutca  Veitch,  30. 
Tliuja  occidentalis  lutea  huniilig  Siidw.,  30 
Thuja  occidentalis  parra  Siidw.,  30. 
\r'         Thuja,  occidentalis  ijendula  Gord.,  30. 

Thuja  oecidentalis xtendtda  glaucescens  Sudw.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  recurva  pusilla  Sudw.,  30. 
Thuja    occidentalis    ncurvata    argenteo-variegata 

Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  recurvata  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  rejlcxa  (.larr.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  riversi  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  rosenthali  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  silver-queen  Beissn.,  31. 
Thuja  occidentalis  spaethi  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  s)>ihlmanni  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  tatarica  Beissn..  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  theodonensis  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  varia  Sudw.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  vervieneana  Gord.,  30. 
Thvja  occidentalis  viridis  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  walthamensis  Goi-d.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis wareana  Gord.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  wareana  globosa  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  occidentalis  wareana  lutescens  Beissn.,  30. 
Thuja  plicata  Don.,  31. 

Thvja  plicata  argenteo-versicolor  Sudw.,  31. 
ThujapHcata  atrovirens  (Gord.)  Sudw.. 31. 
Thuja  plicata  aurescens  (Beissn.)  Sudw.,  31. 
Thvja  plicata  compacta  (Carr.)  Beissn.,  31. 
Thuja  plicata  erecta  (Gord.)  Sudw.,  31. 
Thuja  plicata  JIava  Sudw.,  31. 
Thuja  plicata  gracillima  (Beissn.)  Sudw.,  31. 
Thuja  plicata  llaveana  Gord.,  31. 
Thvja  plicata  minima  Gord.,  31. 
Thuja  plicata  penduli/orni  is  Sudw.,  31. 
Thuja  plicata  putnila  (Gord.)  Sudw.,  31. 
Thuja  plicata  variegata  Carr.,  31. 
Thuya  gigante.^  Nutt.,3i. 
TILIA  Linn.,  96. 
Tilia  americana  Linn..  96. 

TiLIA  AMERICANA  3  PDBE.SCENS  I.Oud.,  96.  . 

Tilia  heterophyllaVent.,  97. 

Tilia  pubescens  Ait.,  96. 

Tilia  pubescens  leptophylla  Vent.,  97. 

TILIACEiE,  96. 


TORKEYA  CALIFOBNICA   'lOrf.,  37. 
TORREYA  TAXIFOLIA  Am.,  36. 

TOXYLON  Kal.,  63. 

Toxylon  pomiferum  Kaf .,  63. 

Toxylon  pomiferum  inerme  Andre,  63. 

TSUGA  Carr.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  (Linn.)  Carr.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  albo-spica  (Gord.)  Bei-ssn.,  22: 

Tsuga  canadensis  argenteo-variegata  Sudw.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  argentifoUa  Sudw.,  •_'2. 

Tsuga  canadensis  aurea  lieissn.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  columnaris  Beissn.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  compacta  minima  Sudw.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadetisis  erecta  Sudw.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  globosa  Beissn.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  gracilis  Carr.,  22. 

Tsvga  canadensis  )nacrophijllalieiasn.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  tnicrophylla  Beissn.,  22. 

Tsxiga  canadensis  milfordensis  Niobol.,  22. 

Thuga  canadensis  parvifoUa  (Veiteli)  Beissn.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  paucifolia  Sudw.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  pendula  Beissn.,  22. 

Tsuga  canadensis  2>umila  Sudw.,  22. 

Tsuga  heterophylla  (RaF.)  Sargent,  23. 

Tsuija  heterophylla  latifolia  uoni.  nov.,  2:i. 

Tsuga  mertensiana  (Bong.)  Carr.,  23. 

Tsuga  mertensiana  auiliors,  not  Carr..  23. 

Tsuga  merteniianaargentea(^ii\B?in.)non\.vmT.,2'i. 

Tsuga  mertensiana  hookeriana  (Carr.)  nom.  nov.,  23. 

Tsuga  mertensiana  latifolia  Sudw.,  23. 

Tsuga  pattoniana  (JefTr.)  Engelni.,  23. 

Tsuga  pattoniana  akgentea  Beissn.,  23. 

Tsuga  pattoniana   hookeriana    (Carr.)    Lem- 

nion,  23. 
TUMION  Raf.,36. 

Tumion  californicum  (Torr.)  Greene,  37. 
Tumion  taxifolium  (Arn.)  Greene,  36. 
ULMACE.ff;,GO. 
ULMUS  Linn.,  60. 
Ulmus  alata  Minlix.,  61. 
TJlmus  americana  Linn.,  60. 
Ulinns  americana  pendula  Ait.,  60, 
Ulmus  crassifolia  Nutt.,  60. 
Ul.mus  fulva  Michx.,  60. 
Ulmus  pubescens  Walt.,  60. 
Ulmus  racemosa  Thomas,  60. 
UMBELLULARIA  Xutt.,67. 

Umbellularia  californica  (Hook.  Sc  Am.)  Nutt.,  67. 
UNGNADIA  Eudl.,  94. 
Ungnadia  speciosa  Endl.,  94. 
VACCINIUM  Linn.,  101. 
Vaccinium  arboreum  Marsh.,  101, 
VAUQUEIINIA  Correa  ex  H.  H.  K..  09. 
Vauquelinia  californica  (Torr.)  Sargent,  6'' 
A'ax'quei.inia  tokbeyi  "Wats.,  69 
VERBENACE.S;,  108. 
VIBURNUM  Linn.,  110. 
Viburnum  lentago  Linn.,  110. 
Viburnum  prunifolium  Linn.,  111. 
Viburnum  prunifolium  /3  ferrugineum  Torrey  i 

Gray,  111. 
Viburnum  rufotomentosum  Small,  111. 
Washingtonia  filifera  Wendl.,  38. 
Wellingtonia  gigantea  Lindley,  28. 
XANTHOXYLUM  Linn..  84. 
Xanthoxylum  clava-herculis  Linn.,  84. 


125 


Xanthoxylum  clava-herculis  fruticosum  Gr<iy,  84. 

Xanthoxylum  cribrosum  Spreuf^.,  84. 

Xanthozylum  fa^ara  (Linn.)  Sargeut,  84. 

Xanthoxylvm  ptf.rota  H.  B.  K.,  84. 

YUCCA  Linn.,  :i8. 

Yucca  aloifolia  Linn.,  38. 

Yucca  arborescens  (Torr.)  Trelease,  ;i8. 

Yucca  brevifolia  Torr.,  38. 

Yucca  brevifolia  Engelm.,  38. 

Yucca  constricta  Bnckl..  38. 

Yucca  gloriosa  Linn.,  38 


Yucca  glorio.ia  plicata  Carr.,  38. 

Tucca  gloriosa  lecurri/olia  Eugelm.,  38. 

Yucca  macrocarpa  (Torr.)  Coville,  38. 

Yucca  mohavensis  Sargeut,  38. 

Yucca  treculeana  Carr.,  38. 

ZYGIA  Browne,  78. 

Zygia  brevifolia  (Bcnth.)  Sudworth,  78. 

Zygia  flezicaulis  (Beiitli.)  Siulworth,  78. 

Zygia  unguis-cati  (Liun.)  .Sud  worth,  78. 

ZYGOPHYLLACE.E.  83. 


ji^^L^L^CJ^^yGJL 


I  * 


^irtcr^ 


INDEX  OF  COMMON  NAMES. 


[Acceptetl  names  in  heavy-face  type:  s3moiiyni8  in  roman  type.] 


Acaria  {Cercidiutn  jloridunt),  f?l. 
Acacia  (Ruhinia  pseudacacia),  82. 
Ah-wch-bot-kwah,  9L'. 
Ailanthus,  85. 
Alaska  Cypress,  32. 
Alaska  Ground  Cypress,  32. 
Alaska  Pine,  23. 
Alder  (Alnus  maritima),  49. 
Alder  {Alnvs  rhombi/olia),  49. 
Alder  (Abuis  oregona),  49. 
Alder  Buckthorn,  95. 
Algaroba,  79. 
Alisier,  111. 

Allegheny  Sloe,  75.  ' 

Alligator  Juniper,  36. 
Alligator-wood,  68. 
Almondleaf  Willow,  43. 
Aloe-leaf  Yucca,  38. 
Alpine  Fir,  25. 
Alpine  Larch,  20. 
Alpine  Paper  Birch,  48. 
Alpine  Spruce,  23. 
Alpine  Western  Spruce,  23. 
Alpine  "Vriiite-bark  Pine,  14. 
Alternate-leaved  Dogwood,  100. 
Amabilis  Fir,  26. 
Aniabilis,  or  Lovely  Fir,  26. 
American  Arborvita>,  30. 
American  Ash,  106. 
American  Aspen,  45. 
American  Crab,  69. 

American  Crab  Apple  {Fyrus  coronaria),  69. 
American  Crab  Apple  (Pj/rtt.s-  anr/ttstifolia),  70. 
American  Elm,  60. 
American  Fringe,  108. 
American  Holly,  89. 
American  Horse  Chestnut,  93. 
American  Lurch   20. 
American  Linden,  96. 
American  Mountain  Ash,  70. 
American  !Nettle-tree,  62. 
Aniericau  Planetree,  61. 
American  Poplar,  45. 
American  Smoke-tree,  87. 
Anacahuita,  108. 
Anaqua,  108. 
Andromeda,  102. 
Angelica-tree,  99. 
Anthony's  Prickle-coue  Pine,  18. 
Antswood,  104. 
Apache  Pine,  16. 
Apple  Ilaw,  74. 
126 


Arbol  de  Hierro,  83. 

Arborvitse,  30. 

Arborvitfp  (Thuja  plicata),  31. 

Arizona  Broad-leaf  Pine,  16. 

Arizona  Cork  Fir,  26. 

Arizona  Cypress,  32. 

Arizona  Five-leaved  Lumber  Pine,  15. 

Arizona  Flexilis  Pine,  14. 

Arizona  Long-leaf  Pine,  16. 

Arizona  Madrona,  102. 

Arizona  Palm,  38. 

Arizona  Pine,  15. 

Arizona  Ked-bark  Cypress,  32. 

Arizona  Spruce,  21. 

Arizona  Sycamore,  69. 

Arizona  Wliite  Oak,  54. 

Arizona  White  Pine,  14. 

Arizona  Yellow  Pine,  15. 

Arrow-wood  (Evoin/nuts  atrop%irpiireus) ,  99. 

Arrow-wood  (Oxydendruin  arboreiim),  102. 

Ash  {Xanthoxylum  clava-heiculis),8i. 

Ash  (Fiaxiniin  anomala),  106. 

Ash  (Fraxiniii  velulina),  100. 

Ash  (Fraxinim  a}nericana),  106. 

Ash  {FraximisptiiDsylvatticu),  107. 

Ash  (Fraxinus  laiiciolata),  107. 

Ash-leaved  Maple,  93. 

Aspen,  45. 

Aspen  leaf,  45. 

Asj)en  Poplar,  45. 

Atlantic  Ked  Cedar,  30. 

August  Plum,  75. 

Avispillo,  07. 

Ayacabuite  Pine,  14. 

Bald  Cypress,  27. 

Balm,  46. 

Balm  Cottonwood  (Cal.),46. 

Balm  of  Gilead  {Ahiex  haliiamea).25. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  46. 

Balm  of  Gilead  {I'oprilu.s  bal.caiidicans),iG. 

Balm  of  Gilead  Fir,  25. 

Balsam  {Picea  enyelmanni),  21. 

Balsam  (Pieea parryana), 21. 

Balsam  (Abies fra!<eri),2h. 

Balsam  (Abies  balsamea),  25. 

Balsam  (Abies  lasiocarpa),  25. 

Balsam  (Abies  concolor),  26. 

Balsam  (Popidus  balsamifera).  46. 

Balsam  (Popidus  bal.  candicaiis),it. 

Balsam  [Poprdus  aiigiutifolia),  46. 

Bals.im  Cottonwood,  46. 

Balsam  Fir,  25. 


127 


Balsam  Fir  {Abies fraseri) ,  25. 

lialsani  Fir  {Abies  balgamea),2b. 

Balsam  Fir  {Abies  concolor),  26. 

Balaam  Poplar,  46. 

Balsam-tree,  26. 

Banana,  66. 

Banlcsian  Pine,  19. 

Banks  Palmetto,  37. 

Barberryleaf  Cockspiir,  72. 

Baretta,  84. 

Bark  Maple,  91. 

Barren  Oak,  57. 

Barren  Oak  {Quercii.s  marilandica), 58. 

Barren  Scrub  Oak,  57. 

Barrens  Oak,  58. 

Bartram  Oak,  59. 

Bartram's  Oak,  59. 

Basket  Ash,  106. 

Basket  Elm,  60. 

Basket  Oak  (Qiiercus  michauxii),  53. 

Basket  Oak  (Querais  b rev iloba),  54. 

Basswood  {Liriodendron  tulipi/era),66. 
Basswood,  96. 

Ba.star(l  Acacia,  82. 
Bastard  Ash,  107. 

Bastard  Cedar,  29. 

Bastard  Elra,  62. 

Bastard  Oak,  54. 

Bastard  Pine  (Pinus  tceda),  17. 

Bastard  Pine  {Pinus  serotina),  18. 

Ba.stard  Pine  {Pinus  heterophylla),  19. 

Kastard  Pine  {Abies  concoJor},  26. 

Battree,  64. 

Baumier,  46. 

Bay  {Magnolia  glauca),  64. 

Bay  (Persea  pubescens),^^. 

Bayberry  (Myrica  cerif era),  i2. 

Bayberry  {Myrica  californica),42. 

Bayberry  {Rhatnnus  purihiana),  90. 

Bay  Galls,  66. 

Bay-tree,  67. 

Beaded  Locust,  81. 

Beantree,  109. 

Bearberry  (Ilex  decidua).  89. 

Bearberry  ( Ehamnus  purshiana) ,  96. 

Bear  Oak,  57. 

Bearwood,  96. 

Beaver-tree,  64. 

Bebb  Willow,  44. 

Beech,  50. 

Beef- wood,  64. 

Beetree,  96. 

Bell-tree,  105. 

Berlandier  Ash,  107. 

Big  Buckeye,  94. 

Big-bud,  41. 

Bigcone  Douglas  Si)ruce,  35. 

Bigcone  Pine,  16. 

Bigcone  Spruce,  25. 

Big  Cottonwood,  47. 

Bigelow  WiUow,  44. 

Big  Hickory  I^^nt,  41. 

Big  Laurel  {Magnolia  faetida),  64. 

Big  Laurel  (lihododendron  maximum),  102 

Bigleaf  Laurel,  102. 

Bigleaf  Maple,  90. 


Big-leaved  Ivy,  102. 

Big  Pine  {Pinun  lamberHana),  14. 

Big  Pino  {Pinus ponderosa),l&. 

BigShellbark,41. 

Bigtree  (J  bies  nobilis),  27. 

Bigtree,  28. 

IMlsted,  68. 

Birch  (Petula  nigra),  i8. 

Birch  {Letula  lenta),  49. 

Birchleaf  Mahogany,  69. 

Bird  Cherry.  76. 

Bishop's  Pine,  18. 

Bitter  Cherry,  76. 

Bitter  Cottonwood,  46. 

Bitter  Hickory,  40. 

Bitternut  (Hickory),  40. 

Bittemut  {Hicoria  minima),  40. 

Bitternut  {Hicoria  glabra),  41. 

Bitter  Pecan,  40. 

Bitter  Pecan  Tree,  40. 

Bitter  Pig  Xut,  40. 

Bitter  Walnut,  40. 

Bitter  Waternut,40. 

Bitterwood,  85. 

Black  Ash  {Acer  negundo),  9.3. 

Black  Ash,  106. 

Black  Ash  {Frazinits  pennsylvanica),Wl. 

Blackbark  Pine,  16. 

Black  Birch  (Betula  occidentalis),  48. 

Black  Birch  (Betula  nigra)  AS. 

Black  Birch  {Betula  lenta), 49. 
Black  Calabash,  109. 

Mack  Calabash-tree,  109. 

Black  Cherry,  77. 

Black  Cottonwood  (Populus  heterophylla),  46. 

Black  Cottonwood  (Populus  angusti/olia),46 

Black  Cottonwood,  46. 

Black  Cypress,  27. 

Black  Elderberry,  110. 

Black  Gum  {Abies  concolor),  26. 

Black  Gum,  100. 

Black  Haw,  71. 

Black  Haw  {Bumelia  tenax),  103. 

Black  Haw  {Bumelia  lanuginosa),  104, 

Black  Haw  {Vibiirnum  lentago).  111. 

Black  Haw  {yiburnurrh prunifolium),!!!. 

Black  Hemlock,  23. 

Black  Hickory  {Hicoria  alba),i\. 

Black  Hickory  {Hicoria  glabra),  41. 

Black  Ironwood,  95. 

Blackjack  (Querctis  catesbcei\,bl. 

Black  Jack,  58. 

Black  Jack  Pine,  19 

Black  Larch,  20. 

Black  Laurel,  87. 

Black  Limetree,  96 

Black  Lin,  65. 

Black  Live  Oak,  55. 

Black  Locust  {Glcditsia  triacanthos), 80. 

Black  Locust  {Robinia  pseudacacia),82. 

J5hick  Mangrove,  108. 

Black  Maple  (Acer  sacchani7n),91. 

Black  Maple,  91. 

Black  Mulberry,  62. 

Black  Korway  Pine,  17. 

Black  Oak  {Querctts  emoryi),  55. 

Black  Oak  (Quercus  rubra),  56. 


128 


Black  Oak  (Querent  coccinea),  56. 

Black  Oak  {Qxiercus  velutma),bG. 

Llack  Oak  (Quercus  calif ornica),  hi. 

Black  Oak  {Querctn  inarilandica),  58. 

Black  Olivetree,  09. 

Black  Persimmon,  105. 

Black  Pine  {Finns  Jeffrey i),  16. 

Black  Pine  (Firms  mvrrayana),  16. 

Black  Pine  (Finus  tceda),  17. 

Black  Pine  (Fintis  rigida), 17. 

Black  Pine  (Finus  divaricata) .  1!<. 

Black  Poplar,  47. 

Black  Slash  Pine,  17. 

Black  Sloe,  76. 

Black  Spruce,  "Jd. 

Black  Spruce  (Ficea  canadensis),  21. 

Black  Sugar  Maple,  itl. 

Black  Sumach,  88. 

Black  Thorn  (Cratcegus  douglasii), 71. 

Black  Thorn  (Cratcegus  tomentosa),Ti. 

Black  Titi.  88. 

Blacktree,  108. 

Black  "Walnut,  39. 

Black  Willow,  4J. 

Black  Willow  (Salix  Icevignta),  43. 

Black  Willow  (Salix  lasiandra),  43. 

Black  Willow  (Salix  amygdaloides),<Z. 

Black  Willow  (Salix  nuttallii), 4i. 

Blackwood,  108. 

Bleeding  Heart,  90. 

Blister  Pine,  25. 

Blolly,  64. 

Blue  Ash,  106. 

Blue  Ash  (Fiaxinus  laiiceolata), 107. 

Blue  Beech,  50. 

Blue  Birch,  48. 

J'.lue  Blo.ssoni,  96. 

Blue  Dogwood,  100. 

Blue  Jack,  58. 

Blue  Locust,  83. 

Blue  Myrtle.  90. 

Blue  Oak  (Quercus  ma.(rocarpa),52. 

Blue  Oak  (Querciig  douglasii), 5i. 

Blue  Oak,  54. 

Bhii'  Poplai-,  05. 

Blue  Spruce  (Fieea  mariana),2Q. 

Blue  Spruce,  21. 

Bluet,  101. 

Bluewood,  95. 

15odock,  63. 

Bog  Birch.  95. 

Bog  Spruce,  21. 

Bois  D'Arc.  63. 

Bois  inconnu,  62. 

Bois  Puant  (Flatanus  occidentalis),  68. 

Bois  Puant  (Catalpa  upeciosa),  109. 

Bolandcr's  Pine,  16. 

Boleau,  48. 

Bolle  Poplar,  47. 

Bonpland  Willow,  43. 

Bottom  Shellbark,41. 

Bow-wood,  o:;. 

Boxelder,  93. 

Box  Elder  (Acer  negundo  calif ornicum) ,%i. 

Box  Oak,  52. 

Box  White  Oak,  53. 


Boxwood  (Schcpfferiafruteicens),  90. 

Boxwood  (Corntisjlorida),  100. 

Brash  Oak,  52. 

Brewer's  Spruce,  22. 

Bristle-cone  Fir,  26. 

Bristle-cone  Pine,  15 

Bristle-leaf  Strongback,  108. 

Brittle  Thatch,  37. 

Brittlewood,  95. 

Britton  Oak,  58. 

Broadfruit  Yucca,  38. 

Broadleaf  Cockspur,  72. 

Broadleaf  Locust,  82. 

Bioad-leaf  Pine,  16. 

Broad-leaved  Cottonwood,  47. 

Broad-leaved  Maple,  90. 

Broadpod  Locust,  83. 

Broom  Hickory,  41. 

Brown  Ash  (Fraxinus  nigra),  106. 

Brown  Ash  (Fraxinus pe7ini!ilvanica),  107. 

Brown  Hickory,  41. 

Brown  Piue,  19. 

Buckeye  (^sculux  glabra),  93. 

Buckeye  (JEscvliis  ocfandra),  94. 

Buckthorn  (lihainnus  caroliniana),95. 

Buckthorn  (Khamnus ptirshiana),  96. 

Buckthorn  (Bumi'lia  lycioides),  104. 

Buckthorn  Bumelia,  104. 

Buckwheat-tree,  88. 

Bujot  Locust,  80. 

Bull  Bay,  64. 

Bullnut,41. 

Bull  Pine  (Finuxjlexilig),  14. 

Bull  Pine,  15. 

Bull  Pine  (Finus  pondcrosa  scopulormn),  15. 

Bull  Pine  (Finns  jeffreyi),  16. 

Bull  Pine  (Fimis  tceda),  17. 

Bull  Pine  (Finus  serotina),  18. 

Bull  Pine  (Finns  cchinata),  18. 

Bumwood,87. 

Burning  Bu.sli,  89. 

Burning-wood,  88. 

Burnwood,  88. 

Burnwoodbark,  88. 

Bur  Oak,  52. 

Burriers  Oak,  59. 

Bustic,  104. 

Butternut,  39. 

Buttnut,  39. 

Buttonball  (I'latanus  occidentalis).  68. 

Buttonball  (Flatanus  racemona),  68. 

Buttouball-tree  {Flatanus  occidentalis),  68. 

Buttonball-tree  (Flatanus  racemosa),6B. 

Buttonwood  (Platanus  race7nosa),68. 

Buttonwood  (Laguncularia  racemo.'ia),  09. 

Buttonwood  (Conocarpus  crec<a),  99. 

Button-wood  (Flatanus  occidentalis),  68. 

Cabbage  Palmetto,  37. 

Cabbage-lree,  .37. 

Cabeza  viejo,  97. 

Cajeput,  67. 

Calico  Bush,  102. 

Calico  Flower,  102. 

Calico-ireo,  102. 

Calicowood,  105. 

California  Bay  berry,  43. 


129 


California  Bay-tree.  67. 

California  Black  Oak,  57. 

California  Boxelder,  93. 

California  Buckeye,  94. 

California  Cherry,  77. 

California  Chestnut  Oak,  59. 

California  Coffee,  96. 

California  Dogwood,  100. 

California  False  Nutmeg,  :!7. 

California  Fan  Palm,  38. 

California  Hemlock  Spruce.  23. 

California  Holly,  74. 

California  Juniper,  36. 

California  Laurel,  67. 

California  Lilac,  96. 

California  Live  Oak,  55. 

California  Mountain  Cypress  32. 

California  Myrtle,  42. 

California  Xutmeg,  37. 

California  Olive,  67. 

California  Post  Cedar,  29. 

California  Red-bark  Fir,  27.  » 

California  Red  Fir,  27. 

California  Redwood,  28. 

(California)  Rock  Oak,  54. 

(California)  Scrub  Oak,  54. 

California  Swamp  Pine,  18. 

California  Sycamore,  68. 

(California)  Tanbark  Oak,  59. 

California  Torreya,  37. 

California  V^ahuit  (Jitglans  ritpestris).  39. 

California  Walnut,  39. 

California  "Wax  Myrtle,  42. 

California  White  Fir  {Abies  concolor),  26. 

California  White  Fir  (Abies  cone,  loaiana), 26. 

California  White  Oak,  51. 

Californian  Sassafras,  67. 

Canada  Balsam,  25. 

Canada  Horn  cone  Pine.  19. 

Canada  Plum.  75. 

Canadian  Hemlock,  22. 

Canadian  Judas  tree,  80. 

Canadian  Red  Piue,  15. 

Candleberry,  42. 

Cane  Ash,  106. 

Canela,  67. 

Canoe  Birch,  48. 

Canoe  Cedar.  31. 

Canoe-wood,  66. 

Canon  Birch,  48. 

Canotia,  85. 

Canyon  Live  Oak,  55. 

Canyon  Oak,  55. 

Caper  tree,  67. 

Carolina  Ash,  107. 

Carolina  Buckthorn  (Rhamnug  caroliniana) .  9,") 

Carolina  Buckthorn  (Biimelia  lijcioideii),  104. 

Carolina  Hemlock,  23. 

Carolina  Pine,  18. 

Carolina  Poplar,  47. 

Carolinian  Cherry,  77. 

Cascara  Buckthorn,  96. 

Cascara  Sagrada,  96. 

Cassada,  li>4, 

Casseua.  89. 

Cassie.  78. 

19193— Bull.  17 9 


Cassine,  89. 

Cassio-berry  Bush,  89, 

Catalpa  {Catalpa  catalpa),  109. 

Catalpa  (Catalpa  speciosaj,  108. 

Catawba.  109. 

Catawba  Rhododendron,  103. 

Catawba  tree,  109.     . 

Cat's  Claw  ('/.yijia  niiguis-cali),  7i<. 

Cat's  Claw  (Acacia  wnffhtii).7B. 

Cat's  Claw  (Acacia  greggii).  79. 

Cat  Spruce.  21, 

Cedar  (Libocedrws  d€curieiis),2ti. 

Cedar  (Thuja  occidentalit) .  30. 

Cedar  (Thuja  plica(a),  31. 

Cedar  (Jiiniperus  virginiana).  34. 

Cedar  (Junipervs  occidentalit).  35. 

Cedar  Elm.  60. 

Cedar  Pine  (I'invs  virginiana).  IS. 

Cedar  Pine  (Tiniis  glabra),  19. 

Cedre,  :i4. 

Chalky  Leucsena,  79, 

Chamiso,  74. 

Chapman  Oak,  52. 

Chapote,  1U5. 

Checkered-barked  Juniper,  36. 

Chek  Pine,  19. 

Chene  etoili-,  52. 

Ohene  Vert,  55. 

Cherry  (Icacorea  patiiciilata) ,  103. 

Cherry  Birch  (Betiila  occide7itali.t),i6. 

Cherry  Birch  (Betula  lenta).  49. 

Cherry  Laurel,  77. 

Chestnut  (Gastanopsis  chrynophi/lla),^!. 

Chestnut,  51. 

Chestnut  Oak,  53. 

Chestnut  Oak  (Queraris  acuminata),  53. 

Chestnut  Oak  (Quercus  den»ij1oia),59. 

Chickasaw  Plum,  75. 

Chihuahua  Pine,  16. 

Chihuahua  Toi)-cone  Pine,  16. 

Chinaberry,  94. 

China-tree,  85, 

Chinquapin,  51. 

Chinquapin  (Castanoptig  chrysophylla),  51. 

Chinquapin  Oak,  53. 

Chittaniwood,  87. 

Cliittimwood,  104. 

Choke  Cherry,  76. 

Choke  Cherry  (Prunut  demissa),n. 

Choke  Cherrs'  (Prunui  serotina),  77. 

Cho-koh-tun'T,  25, 

ChoUa,  97. 

Christmas-berry,  74, 

Cigartree  (Catalpa  catalpa).  109. 

Cigartree  (Catalpa  gpeciosa),  109. 

Cigua,  67. 

Cinnamon-bark,  87. 

Cinnamon  Oak,  58. 

Cirier,  42. 

Clammy  Locust,  83. 

CUffElm,  61. 

Coast  Live  Oak,  55. 

Coast  Nutmeg.  37, 

Coast  Redwood.  28, 

Cockspur,  71. 

Cockspur  Hawthorn,  71. 


130 


Cockspur  Thorn,  71. 

Cocoa  Plum,  74. 

Coffeebeaii,  81. 

CotlVebean-tree.  81. 

Cofl'tebeiiy,  96. 

Coflfeennt,  81. 

Coffeetree,  81. 

Colorado  JJlue  Spruce,  21. 

Colorado  White  Fir,  26. 

(Common)  Catalpa,  109. 

(Common)  Cottonwood,  46. 

Coninion  Hickory,  41. 

Coniiiion  Sumach,  88. 

Coninion  Thorn,  73. 

Common  Willow.  43. 

Concolor  .Silver  Fir,  26. 

Confederate  Pintree,  80. 

Connu.  62. 

Coral  Bean,  81. 

Conil  Sumach,  87. 

Cork-harked  Douglas  Spruce.  23. 

Corkbark  Elm,  61 . 

Cork  Elm,  60. 

Cork  Eliu  (  rimvs  alata),  61. 

Corkwood,  42. 

Cork-wood  (I'Uonia  obtusata).  64. 

Corky  Elm  (  Ubmti  alata).  61. 

Corky  White  Elm,  61. 

Cornel,  100. 

Cornstalk  Pine,  17. 

Cotonier,  68. 

Cotton  Gum,  101. 

Cotton-tree  {Poptiliis  heterophylla).  46. 

Cotton-tree  {FopuUis  deltoides),  47. 

Cottonwood  {Pojnilus  hetirophylla) .  16. 

Cottonwood  (Populus  hahaniifera),if>. 

Cottonwood  (Populus  angustifolia),  46. 

Cottonwood  (Populus  tric}wcarpa),i6. 

Cottonwood  (Pojniliis  deltoides), 40. 

Cottonwood  (Populus fremvntii), il. 

Cottonwood  (Tilia  heterophylla), 'Jl. 

Coulter  Pine,  16. 

Coulter's  Pine,  16. 

Cow  Licks,  105. 

Cow  Oak,  53. 

("rab  {Pyrus  coronaria),  69. 

Crab  .Vpple  (Py rug  coronaria),  tii). 

Crab  Apple  (Pyrun  aifjustifolia),  70. 

Crab  or  Wild  Apple.  70. 

Crabtree,  70. 

Crabwood,  86. 

Crack  Willow,  45. 

Creek  Maple.  92. 

Creejiing  Pine  (Pinun  albicaulis),  14. 

Crescentleaf  Willow,  42. 

Crinkleleaf  Locust,  82. 

Crisp-leaf  Cottonwood,  47. 

Crisp-leaf  Silver  Maple,  92. 

Cuban  Pine,  19. 

Cucnmber  {Mag7iolia  acitminata).65. 

Cucumber  (Magnolia  macrophy'la).  65. 

Cucumber  (Magnolia  tripetala),Gs. 

Cucumber  (Magnolia  fraserl).  6."). 

Cucumber-tree,  64. 

Cuciinibertree  (Magnolia  aeum.  cordala),  65. 

Cuciunbertree  (Magnolia  jnacrophylla).G5. 


Cucumber-tree  (Magnolia  fraseri), 65. 

Cucumber-tree  ( Lirindendrou  /ulipi/era).Gr,. 

Curl-leaf  Boxelder,  93. 

Curl-leaf  Scrub  Oak,  .54. 

Currant-tree.  71. 

Cu.stard  .Aiiple  (.isi.nina  triloba). 6ii. 

Ciistaid  .\pple  (Annoua  glabra).  66. 

Cutleaf  Locust,  83. 

Cutleaf  Silver  Maple,  92. 

Cut-leaved  Maple,  93. 

Cypress  (I'inus  divaricala).  19. 

(,'ypress  (Taxodium  dintichvm),  27. 

Cypress  (Cupressus  macnabiana).  32. 

Dahoon,89. 

Dahoon  (Holly),  89. 

Dahoon  Holly  (Ilex  caasine  myti/olia),8d. 

Dalea,  82. 

Darling  Plum,  95. 

Darlington  Oak,  58. 

Date  Plum,  104. 

Deciducuis  Cypress,  27. 

Deci4uous  Holly,  89. 

Deer-tongue  Laurel,  102. 

Del  Mar  Pine,  15. 

Dent-sookwanb-ne,  39. 

Desert  Bush,  81. 

Desert  Juniper,  36. 

Desert  Willow,  109. 

Devils  Claw,  79. 

Devil's  Claws,  79. 

DevUwood.  108. 

Doctor  Gum,  87. 

Dogwood  (Rhus  vernix),  88. 

Dogwood  (Cornus  llorida)  100. 

Dogwood  (Cornu.t  nuttallii).  100. 

Dogwood  (Cornus  alterni/olia),  100. 

Dotted-fruited  Thorn,  73. 

Dotted  Haw,  73. 

Double  Fir  Balsam.  25. 

Double-flower  Redbud,  80. 

Double  Spruce  iPicea  uiariana).  20. 

Double  Spruce  (Picea  canaden.ns),  21. 

Double  Spruce  (Abies frascri), 2b. 

Douglas  Fir,  23. 

Douglas  Spruce,  23. 

Dougla'^  Spiuce.  23. 

Douglas-tree,  24. 

Down  cone  Fir,  26. 

Downward  Plum,  104. 

Downy  Basswood,  96. 

Downy-cone  Sub-Alpine  Fir,  26. 

Downy  Haw,  72. 

Downy  Poplar,  46. 

Downy  Redbud,  80. 

Downy  Yellow  Haw,  74. 

Drooping  Ailanthus,  85. 

Drooping  Juniper,  36. 

Drummond  Maple,  93. 

Duck  Oak,  .58. 

Durand  Oak,  54. 

Dura  lid's  Oak,  54. 

Dwarf  Ash,  106. 

Dwarf  lUack  Oak,  57. 

Dwarf  Chestnut  Oak.  53. 

Dwarf  Chinquapin  Oak,  53. 

Dwarf  Choke  Cherry,  77. 


131 


Dwarf  Juniper,  36. 

Dwarf  Maple,  91. 

l)warf  Marine  Pine,  18. 

Dwarf  Kose  Bay-tree.  102. 

Dwarf  Sumach,  S8. 

Dwarf  Walnut.  3i). 

Dyor'.s  Oak,  57. 

Ear-leaved  Cucumber-tree,  65. 

Ear-leaved  Fmbrella-tree,  65. 

Elder  iSambiicits  mericana),  110. 

Elder  (Sambiicug  (jlauca).  110. 

Elderberry,  110. 

Elderberry-tree,  110. 

Elderleaf  Mountain  Ash,  7u. 

Elder-leaved  Mountain  A.sli.70. 

Elkwood,  65. 

Eliu  (  Ulmut:  americana),60. 

Elm  (  rimug  alata),  61. 

Emetic  Holly,  89. 

Emory  Oak,  55. 

Emory's  Oak,  55. 

Encina,  55. 

Engelmann  Oak,  54. 

Eugelmann's  Oak,  54. 

Engelmann  Spruce,  21. 

Eujrelmaun"s  Spruce.  21. 

English  Hawthorn,  72. 

Entire-leaf  Cherry,  78. 

Entireleaf  Mahogany,  69. 

Ejdnette  Jaune,  20. 

Ejiinette  Rouge,  20. 

Erable,  92. 

Erect  Cottonwood,  47. 

European  Alder,  49. 

Evergreen  Buckthorn,  95. 

Evergreen  Cas.seua,  89. 

Evergreen  Cherry  (Pninvx  caroliniana).  77. 

Evergreen  Cherry  (Prvmis  ilici/vlia},  78. 

Evergreen  Magnolia,  64. 

Evergreen  Oak.  55. 

Evergreen  White  Oak.  54. 

Exmouth  Magnolia.  64. 

Eysenhardtia,  82. 

Fal.se  Acacia,  82. 

False  Banana,  66. 

False  Box-dogwood.  100. 

False  Boxwood.  90. 

False  Dogwood,  94. 

False  Mahogany.  66. 

False  Maple,  93. 

Fanleaf  Palm,  38. 

Farkleberry,  101. 

Fat  Pine,  19. 

Feather-cone  Eefl  Fir.  27. 

Feather-tree,  69. 

Fernleaf  Black  Cherry,  77. 

Fetid  Buckeye,  93. 

Fetid  Shrub,  66. 

Fetid  Tew,  .36. 

Fevertree,  110. 

Fiddlewood,  108. 

Finger-cone  Pine,  14. 

Fir  iPseiidotmiya  taxi/olia),  23. 

Fir  (Abies  amabilis),  24. 

Fir  Pine,  25. 

Fir-tree.  25. 


Fire  ( 'berry,  76. 

Firewood.  88. 

Florida  Boxwood,  90. 

Florida  Buttonwood,  99. 

Florida  Caper,  67. 

Florida  Catsclaw,  78. 

Florida  Laurel,  105. 

Florida  Lcmgleaved  Pine,  19. 

Florida  Mahogany,  66. 

Florida  Maple,  91. 

Fl..n(laralni,37. 

Florida  Pine,  19. 

Florida  Plum,  86. 

Florida  Quinine  Bark,  110. 

Florida  .Spruce  Pine,  18. 

Florida  Torreya,  36. 

Florida  Yellow  Pine,  19. 

Florida  Yew,  37. 

Flowering  Ash   108. 

Flowering  Cornel.  100. 

(Flowering)  Dogwood,  100. 

Flowering  Dogwood  (('unius  miltallii) ,  100 

Flowciing  Willow.  109. 

Foothills  Yellow  Pine,  15. 

Forked-leaf.  57. 

Forked  leaf  Black  Jack,  57. 

Four-winged  Ilalesia,  105. 

Foxtail  Pine,  15. 

Foxtail  Pine  (Pinus  tceda),  17. 

Fragrant  Crab,  69. 

Franc-Frene,  106. 

Frankincense  Pine,  17. 

Franklinia,  87. 

Fraser  Fir,  25. 

Fraser  Umbrella,  65. 

Fremont  Cottonwood,  4T. 

Fremontia,  86. 

Fremonfs  Nut  Pine,  15. 

Frene-piquant,  84. 

Frijolito,  81. 

Fringe  Ash,  105. 

Fringed  Spruce,  26. 

Fringetree,  107. 

Gambel  Oak,  52. 

''Gambier  Parry'."*  Pine,"  15. 

Garber  Stopper,  99. 

Garden  Wild  Plum,  74. 

Geigertree,  108.  .^^ 

Georgia  Bark.  110. 

Georgia  Heart  Pine,  19. 

Georgia  Longleaved  Pine,  19. 

Georgia  Oak,  58. 

Georgia  Pine.  19. 

Georgia  Pitch  Pine,  19. 

Georgia  Yellow  Pine,  19. 

Giant  Arborvitae,  31. 

Giant  Cactus.  97. 

Giant  .Sequoia,  28. 

Gigantic  Cedar,  31. 

Gigantic  or  Pacific  lied  <  edar,  31. 

Gigantic  Pine,  14. 

Gigantic  Ked  Cedar,  31. 

Ginger  Pine,  33. 

Glaucous  Willow,  44. 

Glossyleaf  Willow,  43. 

Golden-cu]i  Oak.  55. 


132 


Golden  Fig,  63. 

(idldeii  Fir,  27. 

Golden  Hoptree,  84. 

Goldenleaf  Chinquapin,  .'>1. 

Goldenleaf  Cotttonwood,  47. 

Goldenleaf  locust,  83. 

Gooseberry,  101. 

Goosefoot  Maple,  90, 

Goose  Plum  (Prtinns  amencana),  75. 

Goose  Plum  {Pi'umis  hortulana),  75. 

Goose  Plum  {Prinius  hortulana  mineri).  75. 

Gopber  Plum  (Chrysobalanu.i  icaca),  74. 

Gopher  Plum  (\i/s8a  ogeche),  101. 

Gopherwood,  82. 

Gowen  Cypress,  31. 

Grand  or  Oregon  White  Fir,  20. 

Gray  Birch  (Iietnlai)op%difoUa).i~. 

Gray  Birch  (Betula  occidentalis) ,  48. 

Gray  Birch  (Betula  hitea),  48. 

Gray-leaf  Pine,  16. 

Gray  Pine,  {Pinus  monophylla),  15. 

Gray  Pine,  16. 

Graj-  Pine,  (Pinus  clivaricata),  lil. 

Great  California  Fir,  26. 

Great  Laurel,  102. 

Great  Laurel  Magnolia,  04. 

Great-leaved  Magnolia,  65. 

Great  Rhododendron,  102. 

Great  Silver  Fir,  26.  , 

Great  Sugar  I'iue,  14. 

Great  Tideland  Spruce,  22. 

Great  Western  Larch,  20. 

Green  Ash,  107. 

Greenbark  Acacia,  81. 

Green-barked  Acacia  (Vercidium floridum),8\. 

Green-barked  Acacia  (Cereidiumtorreyanum),%\. 

Green  Haw,  74. 

tlreen  Locust,  82. 

(jreen  Osier,  100. 

Gregg  Ash,  100. 

Guettarda,  110. 

Guiana  Plum  (Dri/petes  lalen'ilora),  86. 

Guiana  Plum,  86. 

Gum  (  IA(juidambar  slyi-aciriua),6S. 

Gum  (Nyssa  sylvatica),  100. 

Gum  Elastic,  104. 

Gum  Elemi,  85. 

Gum-tree  (Liquidambar  vtyranflxia),  68. 

Gumbo  tile,  67. 

Gumbo  Limbo  (Siuiarouha  ijlai(ca),85. 

Gumbo  Limbo,  85. 

Gurgeon  Stopper,  98. 

Gyminda,  90. 

Hackberry,  61.  ^ 

Hackberry  (Celtis  occ.  reticulata),  62. 

Hackberry  (Celtis  missisiippiensiii,  62. 

Hackmatack  (Larix  laricina),  20. 

Hackmatack  (Larix  oceidentalis),  20. 

Hack-tree,  62. 

Hacmack,  20. 

Hairy  Balm  of  Gilead,  46. 

Hairy  Sumach,  87. 

Hardbark  Hickory,  41. 

Hardhack,  50. 

Hard  Maple  (Acer  saccharurn),  91. 

Hard  Maple  (Acer  saccharum  nigrum),  91. 


Hard  Ma]>le  (Acer  saccli. grandide)itatum),92. 

Hard  Pine  (Pinus  resinosa).  15. 

Hard  Pine  (Pinus  rigida),  17. 

Hard  Pine  (Pinus  palvstris),  10. 

Hard-shell,  41. 

Hardy  Catalpa.  109. 

Haw  (CraUfgus  douglasii),  71. 

Haw  (Cratcegus  crus-galli),  71. 

Haw  (Cratcegus  viridis),  74. 

Haw  (Cratcegus jlava),  74. 

Haw  (Viburnuni 2)runifolium) .  111. 

Haw  Bush,  72 

Hawthorn  (Cratcegus  douglasii),  71. 

Hawthorn  (Cratcegus  crus-galli i.  71. 

Hawthorn  (Cratcegus  coccinea),  72. 

Hawthorn  (Crataegus  tomentosa).  73. 

Healing  Balsam,  25. 

Heart-leaved  Cucumber-tree,  65. 

Heart-leaved  Thorn,  73. 

Heart  Piue,  19. 

Heavy  Pine,  15. 

Heavy-wooded  Pine,  15. 

He  Balsam,  20. 

Hedge,  63. 

Hedge-plant,  63. 

Hedge  Thorn,  72. 

He  Huckleberry,  88. 

Hemlock,  22. 

Hemlock  (Tsuga  caroliniana),  23. 

Hemlock  (Tsuga  heterophylla) ,  23. 

Hemlock  (Pseudotsuga  macrucarpa),  25. 

Hemlock  Spruce  (Tsuga  canadensis),  22. 

Hemlock  Spruce  (Tsuga  heterophylla),  23. 

Hemlock  Spruce  (Tsuga  mertensiana),23. 

Henderson's  Pine,  16. 

Hercules'  Club,  99. 

Hickorj-  (Hicoria  minima),  40. 

Hickory  (Tlicoria  ovata),iO. 

Hickory  (Hicoria  alba),il. 

Hickory  Elm,  60. 

Hickory  Nut,  41. 

Hickory  Oak,  55. 

Hickory  Piue,  15. 

Hiokorj'  Poplar,  65. 

High-ground  Willow  Oak,  58. 

Highland  Live  Oak,  56. 

Highland  Oak,  56. 

Hog  Haw,  71. 

Hog  Nut,  41. 

Hog  Plum  (Prunus  americnna),  75. 

Hog  Plum  (Prunus  angusti/olia),  75. 

Hog  Plum  (PruHU*  umbeUata).  76. 

Hog  Plum  (Rhus  metopium),  87. 

Hog's  Haw,  71. 

Holly  ( Prunus  ilici/olia),7S. 

Holly  (Ilex  opaca),  89. 

Holly  (Ilex  decidua),  89. 

Holly  Cherry,  78. 

HoUyleaf  Cherry,  78. 

Holly-leaved  Cherry,  78. 

Hombre  vie.jo,  97. 

Honey,  80. 

Honey  Locust  (Prosopis  julifiora),79. 

Honey  Locust,  80. 

Honey  Locust  { Robiiiia  psetidacacia),  S2. 

Honey  Locu.st  (Robinia  viscosa),S3. 


133 


Honey  Pod,  79. 

Honty  Slnioks,  80. 

H<iiieySlnii'k.s  Locu.st,  80. 

Hooker  Hemlock,  23. 

Hooker  Willow,  44. 

Hoop  Ash  (Ci'Uisoccide7italis),62. 

Hi>o]>  Ash  (Fraxinu.iniirra).  106. 

Hoj)  llonibeani,  5it. 

Hoptree,  84. 

Hornbeam,  50. 

Hornbeam  (Carpinus  caroliniaiia),  50. 

Horse-bean,  81. 

Horse  Cheatnut,  94. 

Horse  Plum  {Pntnus  nigra). 15. 

Horse  Pluui  {Prumtti  americana),  75. 

Horse  Sugar,  105. 

Huajillo,  78. 

Huckleberry  Oak,  55. 

Huisache,  78. 

Incense  Cedar,  29. 

India-Rubber-tree  (Ficiis  ai(r«a),63. 

India-Rubber-tree  {Fieri k 2}opnlnea),  63. 

Indian  Arrow,  90. 

Indian  Beau  {Cutalpa  catalpa),  109. 

Indian  Bean  (Catalpa  spociosa),  109. 

Indiaji  Bitters,  65. 

Indian  Cherry  [A  Mela  itchier  eanadentis),  71. 

Indian  Cherry  {Hhamnus  caroliniana).9b. 

Indian  Cigar-tree,  109. 

Indian  Physic,  65. 

Indian  Pine,  17. 

Indigo  Bush,  82. 

Indigo  Thorn,  82. 

Inkwood,  94. 

Iowa  Crab,  70. 

Iron  dak  {Quercus  minor),  52. 

Iron  Oak  (Quercus  chrysolepi.')),  55. 

Iron  Oak  {Quercus  marilainfica).  oB 

Ironwood  (Ostrya  viifjiniana),50. 

Ironwood  {Carpinus  caroliniana).  5ii. 

Ironwood  {Progopis  julijiora),  79. 

Ironwood  {Guajacum  sancium).  83. 

Ironwood,  88. 

Ironwood  (Cliftonia  munophylla\.  88. 

Ironwood  {Cyrilla  racemijlora).  88. 

Ironwood  {E.Tothea  panicidata).  94. 

Ironwood  {Bumelia  tenax),  103. 

Ironwood  (Bumelia  lycioideg).  104. 

Iron  "Wood  (Olneya  tr.wta).  83. 

Islay,  78. 

Ivy,  102. 

Ivywood,  102. 

Jack  Oak  (Qitemts  iitarilaHdica),oS. 

Jack  Oak  (Quercux  imi/ricaria).  59. 

Jack  Pine,  19. 

lamaica  Dogwood,  83. 

Jasmine,  66. 

Ja.sminier,  66. 

Jefli-ey  Pine,  16. 

Jersey  Pine,  18. 

Jeru-salem  Thorn,  81. 

Joewood,  103. 

Joshua-tree,  38. 

Judas-tree,  80. 

Jnne-berry,  70. 

"Jauiper"  (Pinux  div(irirata),VJ. 


Juniper  (Larix  laricina),  20. 

Juniper  (Picea  mariana),  20. 

Jv.niper  (Lihocedrtts  decurrens),29. 

Juniper  (Cham,  fhyoidvs).  32. 

Juniper  {.Tunipenia  rir<jiniana).'ii. 

Juniper  (.Tuniperug  Occident alis),  35. 

.Iimiper  {Junipcrus  .sabinoides),36. 

Juniper  {.Tunipcrtm  cali/tirnica),  36. 

Juniper  {.Ttinijiernt  ntahcntix).  36. 

Juniper  (.Tuniprrus  pachyphlo'a),  36. 

.Juniper  iSnsh,  34. 

Juniper  Cedar,  36. 

Juniper-tree,  62. 

Kalnna,102. 

Ka  neb-tens,  20. 

Kellogg's  Oak,  57. 

Kentucky  CoiFeetree,  81. 

King^'ut,41. 

Kingstree,  19. 

Knackaway,  108. 

Enobcone  Pine,  17. 

Knotty  Pine,  16. 

Knowlton  Hornbeam,  50. 

Koeberlinia,  85. 

Ko-yen-ta-ka-ah-ta,  66. 

Lanceleaf  Alder,  49. 

Lanceleaf  Cottonwood,  46. 

Lanceleaf  Dwarf  Sumach,  88. 

Lancewood,  G7. 

Langue.s  de  femmes,  46. 

■'  Larch  "  {Larix  laricina), 'M. 

'•Larch  ■■  (Larix  lyallii),  20. 

Larch  (Larix  Occident  alis),  20. 

Larch  (Abies  amabiliii),2G. 

Larch  (Abies  nobilis),  27. 

Large  American  Aspen,  4.">. 

Large  Buckeye,  94. 

Large-coned  Pine,  16. 

Large-flowered  Evergreen  Magncdia,  64 

largeleaf  Mulberry,  62. 

Largeleaf  Umbrella,  65. 

Large-leaved  Cucumber-tree.  65. 

Large-leaved  Limetree,  97. 

Large-leaved  Umbrella-tree,  65. 

Large  Poplar,  45. 

Largetooth  Aspen,  45. 

Large-toothed  Aspen,  45. 

Large-tooth  Maple,  92. 

Large-toothed  Maple,  92. 

Large-toothed  Poplar,  45. 

Large  Tupelo,  101. 

Large  Wliite  Birch,  48. 

Laurel  I  Magnolia  foctida),  64. 

Laurel  (  Uinbellularia  cali/ornica^,  67. 

Laurel  (Arbtitri.s  menziesii),  101. 

Laurel  (.1  rbuttu xalapensis),  101. 

Laurel  (h'almia  lati/olia),  102. 

Laurel  (Rhododendron  maximinn),  102. 

Laurel  Bay,  64. 

Laurel  Cherry,  77. 

Laurel-leaved  Magnolia,  64. 

Laurel  Oak,  58. 

Laurel  Oak  {Quercitu  imbricaria).  59. 

Laurel-tree,  66. 

Laurelwood,  101. 

Laurier  Petit  Magnolia,  66. 


134 


Laurii  ainaude,  77. 

Laury  !^^un(l y,  77. 

Law.iitn'.s  Cyiiress,  33. 

Lea  Oak,  r>9. 

Leatherleaf  Ash,  106. 

Leatherwood  [Ci/nlla  iacemif(ira),SX. 

Leather-wood  (/■VDCDi^offcni/i-o/i  cnli/ornieinn),  8fi. 

Leiu.  90. 

Leucsna,  79. 

Lcvei'wood,  50. 

T.iar.  4fi. 

LilV  lit'  Mau.7i). 

Lignum-vitse,  83. 

Lily  of  tin-  Vallpytr.'e,  102. 

limber  Pine,  14. 

Limber-twig  Pine,  14. 

Linictn-e  {Tilia  ainericana),  96. 

Limetree  {Xi/ssa  oijeche).  101. 

Lin,  97. 

Linden,  90. 

Linn.  96. 

Liquidamber,  08. 

Little  Pignut,  41. 

Little  Shagbark.  41. 

Little  Sugar  Piue  (I'lnus  lamberlianf),  14. 

Little  Sugar  Pine  (Pinuti  moiiticola),  14. 

Little  AValuut,  39. 

Live  Oak,  55. 

Live  Oak  ((^uerciix  chn/golepis),  55. 

Live  Oak  {Qitercus  v'islizeni),5Q. 

Live  Oak  {(^uircus  i/c/isi/oia),  59. 

Lobb's  Arborvitas31. 

Loblolly  Bay,  87. 

Loblolly  Pine,  17. 

Loblolly  Pine  {IHnus  xerotina),  18. 

Lotu.st  {Olediliia  triaca7itlio.<i),S0. 

Locust,  82. 

Lotu.st  (lioh'uiia  )ii'(i-mexicann),H.',. 

Lodgepole  Pine,  10. 

I>oiwood,  95. 

Lombardy  Poplar,  47. 

Liuii-  Pine,  15. 

Longleaf  Pine,  19. 

Longleaf  Service-tree,  71. 

Longleaf  Willow,  43. 

Long-leaved  Cucuuiber-tree,  65. 

Long-leaved  Magnolia,  65. 

Long-leaved  Pine  (Pinus pundeyosa),  1.''. 

Long-leaved  Pine  {V.ponderosa  scopiilonnn).  15. 

Long-leaved  Pine  (Pimis  ligida).  17. 

Long-leaved  Pine  (Piintu  jialnttns},  V. 

Long-leaved  Pitch  I'ine,  19. 

Long  leaved  Willow,  43. 

Long-leaved  Yellow  Pine.  19. 

Long  Pod,  78. 

Longsohat  Pine  (Pimcs  tceda),  17. 

Longschat  Pine  (l^intis  il(iida),  17. 

Long.shiicks,  17. 

Longspine  Haw,  "J. 

Longstalk  Willow,  4!!. 

Longstraw  I'ine  (Pinus  tteda),  17. 

Long.straw  I'ine  (Piiins  iiaUiitii.i),  19. 

Lovely  Fir,  20. 

Lovely  Red  Fir,  26. 

Low  Maple,  90. 

Lowland  Fir,  20. 


Lowland  Spruce  Pine,  19. 

Lyall'8  Larcli,  20. 

Lyall  Willow,  43. 

Mackenzie  Willow,  44. 

Macnab  Cypress,  32. 

MacNab'.^  ('ypre.s.'*,  32. 

Madeira,  HO. 

Madrona,  101. 

Madrona  (Arbutiisxalajieimi.i).  101. 

Madrone-tree  (Arhutux  menziexii).  101. 

iLidroue-tree  {.irhiitng  xalajiensix),  101. 

Madrove,  101. 

Magnificent  Fir,  27. 

Magnolia  (Magnolia  glauca),  64. 

Magnolia  {Maffiiolia  acumiiiala),  05. 

Magnolia  (Magnolia  tnpetala),6D. 

Mahaleb  Cherry,  76. 

Mahogany  (Gymnocladus  dioicu*), 81. 

Mahogany,  86. 

Mahogany  Kirch,  49. 

Manimotb-tree,  28. 

Manchineel,  86. 

Mangrove,  98. 

Manzanita  (Arbutiin  menzlesii ),101. 

Manzanita  (Arbutun  xalapensis),  10]. 

Maple  (Acer  maciophyllum),  90. 

Maple  (Acer  glabrinn),  91. 

Maple  (Acer  saccha rum) ,  91. 

Maple  (Acerneg.  calif ornicxim),  93. 

Marlberry,  103. 

Marsh  Pine,  18. 

Mastic,  103. 

Maul  Oak,  55. 

May  Cherry,  71. 

May  Haw,  74. 

Mayr  Pine,  10. 

Meadow  Pine  (Pitiim  t(vda),  17. 

Meadow  I'ine  (Pinuii  aerotina),  IG. 

Meadow  I'iiie  {Pinus  heterophylla).  10 

Meehan  Silverbell-tree,  105. 

Menzies'  Spruce,  22. 

Merisier.  48. 

Merisier  Rouge,  48. 

Mescrew,  79. 

Mesquite,  79. 

Mexican  Cenibra-like  Pine,  14. 

Mexican  Cherry,  77. 

Mexican  ( 'berry-tree,  77. 

Mexican  Elder,  110. 

Mexican  Madrona,  101. 

Mexican  Mulberry,  62. 

Mexican  Oak,  55. 

Mexican  Palmetto,  37. 

Mexican  Persimmon,  105. 

Mexican  I'iuon  (Pinus  qxiadr  if olia).l\. 

Mexican  Piiion,  14. 

Mexican  Walnut,  39. 

Mexican  White  Pine,  14. 

Mimosa.  70. 

Miner  Plum,  75. 

Missouri  Willow,  44. 

Mocker  Nut  (Hickory),  41. 

Mock  Olive,  77. 

Mock  Orange  (Toxylon  pomi/erum  i,  63. 

Mock  Orange  (Prunus  caroliniana),~~. 

Mock  Orange  (liumelia  liicioides),  104. 


135 


Mohave  Yucca,  38. 

Mipiitaiiu  Black  Piue,  15. 

Monterey  Cypress,  lil. 

Monterey  Pine,  17. 

AIiiosi'  Kliii,  till. 

Moiisf  .Maiil.\9U. 

:M<m.sc\vo<>(1.90. 

Morehus  Oak,  5G. 

'•Mos'ji  in  the  IJiirning  Hush,"  90. 

Mo.ssycup  Oak,  52. 

M.issycu])  'SVliite  Oak.  52. 

Mountain  Alder  (Alnng  rhombi/oUaj,  49. 

Itloinitaiu  Alder  (Acer  j'eiinmjlranicum) .  90. 

Mountain  Ash,  70. 

Mountain  Ash  {I'yru.i  sambzici/oUa),li). 

Mountain  Ash  (Fraxinus  texensis),  106. 

Mountain  Asj),  45. 

MiMuiiain  I'.aLsam  (Abiea  balsamea),^. 

Mountain  Balsam  (Abies  la.iiocarpa),  26. 

Mountain  Black  Cherry,  77. 

Mountain  Black  Oak,  57. 

Mountain  Cedar  (Ju7}ijierus  sab!iiuides),36. 

Mountain  Cedar  {.Jin)i]>erux  jiach>iphloea\.M. 

Mountain  Cherry, 75. 

Mountain  Elder,  110. 

Mountain  Elm,  61. 

Mountain  Evergreen  f 'lirrry,  78. 

Mountain  Holly,  80. 

Mountain  Ivy.  102. 

Mountain  Juniper.  30. 

Mountain  Larch.  20. 

Mountain  Laurel  (  Umbi'lliilarid  caKfornica),  67. 

Mountain  Laurel,  102. 

Mountain  Laurel  {Rhododendron  viaxiimon).  102. 

Mountain  Magnolia  (  Magnolia  acuminata),  Gi. 

Mountain  Magnolia  {Magnolia  frasen),  05. 

Mountain  Mahogany  {Taxus  brevifalia).  37. 

Mountain  Mahogany  {Beftda  lenta).  49. 

Mountain  Mahogany,  09. 

ISIountaiu  Mahogany  (CercocarjnixparrifoUux),  69. 

Mountain  Mauebineel.  87. 

Mountain  Maple,  9u. 

Mountain  Maple  {Acer  i-ircinatwn),i)l. 

Mountain  Maple  (Acer  rilabrrim),'Jl. 

Mountain  Oak  ( Quercus  gambelii),  .52. 

Miumtain  Oak  iQuercws  primis),b'i. 

Mountain  Pine.  14. 

^Mountain  Sjiruce,  21. 

Mountain  Sumach  (Pyriis  amcricana),  70. 

ilountain  Sumach  {h'liux  copallina).  88. 

Mountain  Weymouth  Pine,  14. 

Mountain  White  Oak,  54. 

Mountain  Willow,  44. 

Mulberry,  62. 

Murier  Sauvage.  62. 

Murray  Pine.  16. 

Myrtle  (J/i/ricH  ceri/eca),  42. 

Myrtle  ( J/i// ica  calif orniea),  42. 

Myrtle  (  rmbi'llularia  californica),  07. 

My  I  lie  Benies,  101. 

Myrtle  Oak.  '.0. 

Myrtle-leaf  Dahoon,  89. 

Myrtletree  {Mi/rica  cen/era),  42. 

Myrtle-tree  (  Vmbelliilaria  cali/omica),  67. 

Naked  seeded  .Tunipei',  i!'). 

Naked  Stopper,  98. 


Kakedwood  (Giietf.arda  elliptica).  110. 

Naked-wood,  96. 

Naked-wood  (.inamoinis  dicholonia),  98. 

Nannyberry  (  Viburnum  lentago).  111. 

Nannyberry,  111. 

Nanny  Plum.  111. 

Narrow-cone  I'ine,  17. 

Narrowleaf  Cockspur,  72. 

Narrowleaf  Cottonwood,  46. 

Narrowleaf  Crab,  70. 

Narrowleaf  Dahoon,  89. 

Narrowleaf  Willow,  43. 

Narrow-leaved  Cottonwood,  46. 

Narrow-leaved  Crab.  70. 

Narrow-leaved  Crab  Apple,  70. 

Narrow-leaved  Willow,  43. 

Native  Plum,  75. 

Nearly  smooth.coue  Pine,  17. 

Necklace  Poplar,  47. 

Negundo  Maple,  93. 

Netleaf  Oak,  54. 

Nettle-tree,  62. 

Nevada  Nut  Piue,  15. 

Newcastle  Thorn,  71. 

New  England  Boxwood,  100. 

New  England  Hemlock,  22. 

New  Jersey  Pine,  18. 

New-Mexican  Locust,  83. 

New  Mexican  Pinon,  14. 

Nickertree,  81. 

Nigger  Pine,  18. 

Noble  Fir,  27. 

Noble  or  Bracted  Red  Fir,  27. 

Nootka  Cypress,  32. 

N(>otka  Sound  Cypress,  32. 

North  American  Red  Spruce,  21. 

North  Carolina  Bay-tree,  05. 

North  Carolina  Pine,  18. 

North  Carolina  Pitch  Pine.  19. 

North  Carolina  Tellow  Pini',  18. 

North  Coast  Cypress.  31. 

North  Coast  Scrub  Piue,  16. 

Northern  Cork-barked  Elm,  01. 

Northern  Cork  Elm.  61. 

Northern  Maple,  9li. 

Northern  Pine,  13. 

Norway  Piue.  15. 

Noyer  Dur,  40. 

Nussbaum  Hybrid  (Hickory).  40. 

Nutmeg  Hickory,  40. 

Nut  Pine  (Pintii  cembroi'les),  14. 

Nut  Pine  {Pinus  quadrifolin),  14. 

Nut  Pine  {Pinu.i  edulis),  14. 

Nut  Pine  {Pinux  inonophiiHa),  15. 

Nut  Pine  {Pimm  coulteri).  16. 

Nuttall  Willow,  44. 

Oak  (Quercus  b/rata),  5 1. 

Oak  barked  Cedar.  36. 

Oakbark  Juniper,  36. 

Oakleaf  Cherry.  78. 

Obi.-«i)o  Pine  18. 

Odorless  Myrtle,  42. 

Oe-eh-nnli  k\veha-he,  68. 

Ogeecheo  Lime,  101. 

Obeh-yabtah.  51. 

Ohio  Buckeye,  93. 


136 


Ohio  Buckeye  (jEscuIud  octandra),  94. 
Oh-nehtah,  22. 
()ilXiit,30. 
Oldlielil  15ir(;h,47. 
(Ildtield  Pine  {I'iniis  tcfja).  17. 
Oldficld  Pine  {Pimis  clausa).  18. 
Oldfield  Pine  {J'invf  echinata),  18. 
Old  Man's  Beard.  108. 
Old-Wife'sShirt-tree,  G6. 
Olivetree,  101. 

Olivier  a  grandiv*!  feiiilles,  101. 
One-berry.  62.  ^ 

One-seed  Juniper,  35. 
One-seeded  Juniper,  35. 
Ooda  tP-clia-wnn-nes, 68. 
Oolinosk-ah,  60. 
Oo-soo-liatali,30. 
Opossnm-wood,  1<I5. 
Oregon  Ash,  107. 
OreiTon  Balsam-tree.  25. 
Orojro"  IViirwood.  96. 
Oregon  Cedar,  :ir!. 
Oregon  Crab,  70. 
Oregim  Crali  Ap))le.  70. 
Oregon  Haple,  00. 
Oregon  Oak,  52. 
Oregon  Pine,  24. 
Oregon  White  Fir.E6. 
Oregon  White  Oak,  52. 
Oreodaphne,  67. 
Ornie  gras.  60. 
Ornie  !Maigre,  60. 
Osage,  63. 

Osage  Apple-tree,  63. 
Osage  Orange,  63. 
Osier  AVillow,  43. 
O-tan-tahrte-weli,  50. 
Overcup  Oak  (Qiiercug  minor),  52. 
Overcup  Oak,  .52. 

Overcup  Oak  {Qvercus  mact-ocarpa).52. 
Overeup  White  Oak  (Quercus  macrocaiya),  52. 
(Pacific)  Dogwood,  100. 
Pacific  Plum,  75. 
Pacific  Post  Oak,  52. 
Pacitic  Red  Cedar,  31. 
Pacific  Yew,  37. 
Pale  Elder,  110. 
Pale  Gyminda,  90. 
Pale-leaf  Hickory,  41. 
,  Pale-leaf  White  Fir,  26. 
Palmer  Oak,  55. 
Palmetto,  37. 
Palo  Blanco,  62. 
Palo  de  Hierro,  83. 

Palo  Verde  {Parkinsonia  mlcriri)hylla).8\. 
Palo  Verde,  81. 

Pah>  Verde  (Cercidiiim  rloriduin),  si. 
Papaw,  66. 
Paper  Birch,  48. 
Paperleaf  Alder,  49. 
Paper  Mulberry,  63. 
Paradi-se  Flower,  79. 
Paradise-tree,  8.j. 
Parasol  Locust,  83. 
Parsley  Haw,  74. 
Parslev-leaved  Haw,  74. 


Parry  Xut  Pine,  14. 

Parry  Pinon,  14. 

Parry's  Xut  Pine.  14. 

Parry'.s  Pine,  14. 

j^arry's  Spruce,  21^ 

Pattern  .H  Sju  lue.  2X 

Paulownia,  109. 

Peach,  78.  I  1 

Peach  Oak  {Que)-cvs  jihelloe).  59.    V 

Peaeh  Oak  {Quen-ic<  ilriu-^i/lnra),  59. 

Pea-tlower  Locust.  82. 

Pear  Haw,  73. 

Pear  Thorn,  73. 

Pecan  (Hickory),  39. 

Pecan  Xut,  39. 

Pecan-tree,  39. 

Pecanier,  39. 

Pecanicr  -Vmer.  40. 

Pecanier  Sauvage,  40. 

Peninsula  Black  Pine,  16. 

Peninsula  Pine,  16. 

Pepperidge,  100. 

Pepper- wood,  84. 

Persimmon,  104. 

Peruve,  70. 

Pigeonberry  (Cornvs  alfemifolia),  100. 

Pigeon-berry  {Amelaiicliler  alnifolia),'il. 

Pigeon-berry  (Rhavmui.  pvrshiana).  96. 

Pigeon  Cherry,  76. 

Pigeon  Plum,  63. 

Pigeon-wood,  64. 

Pig  Hickory,  40. 

Pig  Xut  (Hicoria  minima),  ifi. 

Pignut  {Hicoria  glabra),  41. 

Pignut  (Hickory),  41. 

Pig  W^alnut,  40. 

Pin  Cherry,  76. 

Pin  Oak  (Quercvs  gambelii),  52. 

Pin  Oak  (Qiierciig  aeuminata),  53, 

Pin  Oak  {Querciix  breviloha),  54. 

Pin  Oak,  57. 

Pin  Tliorn,  71. 

Pine  {I'tnuajtexilis),  14. 

Pine  {I'icea  canadensiK),  21. 

Pink  hocust  {Sophora  affi7u.i),Sl. 

Pink  Locust,  82. 

Pinon,  14. 

Pinon  (Piniig  qiiadrifplia),  14. 

Piiion  (Pimis  cembroides),  14. 

Pinon  {Pinusmonophylla),  17. 

Piiion  Pine,  14. 

Pinos,  16. 

Piper  Willow,  44. 

Piquant  Amourette,  80. 

Pi.ss  Ash,  107. 

Pitahaya,  97. 

Pitahaya  dulce.97. 

Pitcli  Pine  (Piims  albicaulix).  14. 

Pitch  Pine  {Pinnt  ponderosa).  15. 

Pitch  Pine,  17. 

Pitch  I'ine  {Pinns echinata).  18. 

Pitch  Pine  {Pinux  hcteropliylla),  19. 

Pitch  Pine  {Pinus palustris),  19. 

Planertree,  61. 

Phine-tree,  68. 

Pla<iueminier,  104. 


137 


Platane,  68, 

Pieue,  6i. 

I'liini.  75. 

rimii  GniuiU',  70. 

Plumleaf  Cockspur,  72. 

Poiiited-leuved  Magnolia.  65. 

Poison  Ash,  88. 

I'oisoD  Dogwood,  88. 

Poison  Elder,  88. 

I'oison  Ivy,  102. 

Poison  Laurel,  102. 

Poi.sou  Oak,  88. 

Poison  Sumach,  88. 

Poisontree,  88. 

Poi.sonwood  (Gijmnanthes  lt(cida).S(i. 

Poisonwood,  87. 

Poisonwood  {Hhv^  vernix),  88. 

Polecat-tree,  95. 

Polecat-wood,  96. 

Poniette  Bleue,  71. 

Fond  Apple,  66. 

Pond  Pine,  18. 

Poor  Pine  (Finux  echinata).  18. 

Poor  Pino  (Pinus  glabra),  19. 

Pop  Ash,  107. 

Poplar  (Populus  tremuloidis),4o. 

Poplar  (Populus  grandidentata),  45. 

Poplar  {Populus  balsa  mi/era),  ^6. 

Poplar  (Liriodendrnn  tulipifera),io. 

Poplarleaf  Fig,  63. 

Poplar-leaved  Birch.  47. 

Popple  (Populus  ti-emuluides),io. 

Popple  (Populus grandidentata),  45. 

Popple  (Liriodendron  tulipifera),  65. 

Popi)y  Ash,  107. 

Pork-wood,  64. 

Fort  Orford  Cedar,  33. 

Possum  Haw,  89. 

Possum  Oak,  58. 

Possumwood,  104. 

Post  Cedar  (Libocedrus  decurrens),  29. 

Post  Cedar  (Cham,  thy  aides), Z2. 

Post  Locust,  82. 

Post  Oak,  52. 

Poverty  Birch,  47. 

Prickle-cone  Pine,  18. 

Prickly  Ash,  84. 

Prickly  cone  Pine.  17. 

Prickly  Pine  (Pinus  murrayana).  lU 

Prickly  Pine  (Pinus pungent).  18. 

Piickly  Spruce,  21. 

Prickly  Thatch,  37. 

Prince  Albert's  Fir,  23. 

Princes  Pine,  19. 

Frincewood,  110. 

Puckerbush,42.' 

Puget  Sound  Pine.  24. 

Pumpkin  Ash,  107. 

Pumpkin-tree,  26. 

Punk  Oak,  58. 

Purple  Buckeye,  94. 

Purple-coned  Sugar  Pine.  14. 

Purple  Dogwood,  100. 

Purple  Haw,  95. 

Purpleleaf  Locust,  83. 

Pussv  Willow,  44. 


Pyramid  Locust,  8.3. 

Pyramidal  Tulip-tree,  60 

Quaking  Asp, 45. 

Quercitron  Oak,  56. 

Quinine-tree,  84. 

Ramshorn,  79. 

Rattlebox,  105. 

Red  Alder,  49. 

lied  American  Larch,  20. 

Red  Ash,  107. 

Red-bark  Cypress,  32. 

Redbark  Pine,  16. 

Red  Bay,  66. 

Red  Beech,  5ii. 

Redberry  Elder,  lln. 

Red  Bircli,48. 

Red-bract  Dogwood,  100. 

Redbud,  79. 

Redbud  (Gercis  reniformis),%(^. 

Red  Cedar  (Libocedrus  decurrens),  29. 

Red  Cedar  (Thuja  plicata),'i\. 

Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  virginiaii<i),3i. 

Red  Cherry,  76. 

lied  Cypress,  27. 

Red  Elm  ( Ubnus pubescens),  60. 

Red  Elm  {  Ulmus  crassifolia),  60. 

Red  Elm  (Vlmus  alata),  61. 

Red  Fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxi/olia),  23. 

Red  Fir  (Abies  amabilis),  26. 

Red  Fir  (Abies  nobilis),  27. 

Red  Fir,  27. 

Red-flowering  Lipcust,  83. 

Redfruit  Ailanthus,  85. 

Red  Gum .  68. 

Red  Haw  (Cratcegus  hrachyacantha),  71. 

Red  Haw  (CratcBgus  crus-galli),  71. 

Red  Haw  (Crataegus coccinea),  72. 

Red  Haw  (Cratcegus  toinentosn).  73. 

Red  Haw  (Cratcegus  eordata),  73. 

Red  Haw  (Cratcegus  viridis),~i. 

Red  Haw  (Cratcegus  apiifolia),li. 

Red  Haw  (Cratcegus Jiav a),  74. 

Redheart  Hickory,  41. 

Red  Hickory  (Hicoria  alba),  il. 

Red  Hickory  (Hicoria  glabra),  41. 

Red  Ironwood,  95. 

Red  Judas  tree,  80. 

Red  Juniper,  34. 

Red  Larch,  20. 

Red  Locust,  82. 

Red  Maple,  92. 

Red  Mulberry,  62. 

Red  Oak,  56. 

Red  Oak  (Quercus  texa7ia),o6. 

Red  Oak  (Quercus  coccinea),  56. 

Red  Oak  ((j^terc^is  digitata),  57. 

Red  Pine,  15. 

Red  Pine  (Pinus ponderosa),  15. 

Red  Pine  (  Vscudotsuga  taxi/olia),  24. 

Red  Plum  (Prunus  nigra).  T5. 

Red  Plum  (Prunus  aniericana),'iii. 

Red  River  .Maple,  93. 

Red  Silver  Fir.  26. 

Red  Spruce,  21. 

Red  Stopper,  99. 

Red  (or)  Sweet  Gum,  08. 


138 


Red  Thorn,  72. 

Reil  Thorn-apple,  72. 

lieA  Tliorn  Bush,  72. 

Rill  Titi.  88. 

Red  Willow,  43. 

Redwood,  28. 

Redwood  (iiwietenia  ntahagoni,    86. 

Red-wooded  Elui,  60. 

Remarkable  Pine.  17. 

Retania.Sl. 

liliododendron,  102. 

Ikidge  Beech,  50. 

Ri{{i<l  Pine,  17. 

River  A.sh,  107. 

River  Birch,  48. 

River  Birth  (Betula  lenta),  49. 

River  Cottonwood,  46. 

River  Hawthorn,  71. 

River  Maple,  92. 

River  Pine,  18. 

"Roble,"51. 

Rock  Cedar,  36. 

Rock  Chestnut  Oak.  53. 

Rock  Elui  (Ulmiis pubescent!),  60. 

Rock  Elm  ( L'lmiig  americana) ,  60. 

Rock  Elm  (Ulmvs  raceinosa),G(). 

Rock  Maple,  91. 

Rock  Oak  iQuerciis prinus), 53. 

Rock  Oak  (Quercus  acuminata).  .'>:!. 

Rock  Oak  ((Quercus  douglasii),  ^>i. 

Rock  Pine,  15. 

Rocky  Mountain  Juniper,  3.').  » 

Rocky  Mountain  Oak,  54. 

Rocky  ^loiintaiu  Pine,  U. 

Rocky  Mouutain  Scrub  Oak,  52. 

Rocky  Mountain  White  Pine,  14. 

Rocky  Mountain  Yellow  Pine.  l.'>. 

Rose  Acacia,  83. 

Rose  Bay,  102. 

Rose-flowering  Locust,  83. 

Rosemary  Pine,  17. 

Rosemary  Pine,  18. 

Rosemary  Pine,  19. 

Rouglibarkt'd  Poplar.  46. 

Roundtop  Poplar,  47. 

Roundwood,70. 

Rowan-berry,  70. 

Royal  Palm,  38. 

Rubber-tree,  63. 

Rum  Cherry,  77. 

Russian  Mulberry,  62. 

Rusty  Nannyberry,  111. 

Sabine  s  Pine,  16. 

Safii-on  Plum,  104. 

Saguaro.  97. 

Sabnara,  97. 

Salad-tree,  80. 

Sandbar  Willow,  43. 

Sand  Jack,  58. 

Sand  Pine  (Pinun  contorta).  16. 

Sand  Pine.  18. 

Sand  Pine  (Pinusclausa).  18. 

Santa  Cruz  Ironwood,  67. 

Santa  Lucia  Fir,  26. 

Sapin,  25. 

Saji  Pine  (Pinun  tceda),  17. 


Sap  I'inc  (I'iniis  rigida),  I!. 

Sapwood  Pine.  16. 

Sargent  Palm,  37. 

Sargent  s  Palm,  37 

"Sarvice,"7I. 

Sassafac.  67. 

Sassafrac,  67. 

Sassafras,  67. 

Satinleaf,  103. 

Satin  Walnut,  68. 

Satinwood.  84. 

Savice,  71. 

Savin  (Juitijienin  virginiatta),  34. 

Savin  {Tniiiio)i  taxifolium),  36. 

Savin  {Taxu.i _rtorida)ia).ZT . 

Saxifrax.67. 

Saxit'rax-tree,  l>7. 

Scalybark  Hickory,  40. 

Scarlet -fruited  Thorn,  72. 

Scarlet  Haw,  72. 

Scarlet  Haw  {Cratcegu.t  mollis),  72. 

Scarlet  Majde,  92. 

Scarlet  Oak,  56. 

Scarlet  Thorn,  72. 

Scarlet  Thorn-Haw,  72. 

Schott  Cactus,  97. 

Schott  Yucca,  38. 

Screwbean,  79. 

Screwbean  Mesquite,  79. 

Screw-Pod  Mesquite,  79. 

Scrub  Oak  {(Quercus  gambeiii),  52. 

Scrub  Oak  ((ftu'i-cus  macrocarpa),  52. 

Scrub  Oak  {Quercus  acuminata),  53. 

Scrub  Oak  {Qnernis  undulata),  54. 

Scrub  Oak  {Quercus  catesbcei).  57. 

Scrub  Oak  {Quercus pumila).  57. 

Scrub  Oak  {Quercus  tnarilandica).  58. 

Scrub  Pine  (Pinus  albicaulis),  14. 

Scrub  Piue  {Pinus  contorta).  16. 

Scrub  Pine,  18. 

Scrub  Pine  {Pinus  clausa).  18. 

Scrub  Pine  {Pinus  divaricata),  19. 

Sea  Ash,  84. 

Sea  Grape,  U:i 

Seaside  Alder,  49. 

Seaside  Plum,  63. 

Senellier,  74. 

Sequoia  {Sequoia  u'aslnngtoniana).2S. 

Sequoia  {Sequoia  .semperviren.'^).  28. 

Serviceberry,  7ii. 

Servicebcrry  {Amclanchier  alnl/olia),  71. 

Service-tree,  71. 

Sbad-beiry,  71. 

Shad  Bu.sh."0. 

Shade  Pine,  14. 

Shagbark  (Hickory),  4(i. 

Sbagbark,  40. 

Shagbark  Walnut,  41. 

Shasta  (.'ypre.ss,  32. 

Shasta  Fir,  27. 

Shasta  Red  Fir,  27. 

Sliawniewood.  109. 

She  Balsam.  2.'i. 

She  Balsam  Fir.  25. 

Sheepberry,  1 10. 

Slicepberry  (  Virliirnuu)  pru}ti/iiliunt).  111. 


139 


Sheej)  Laurel.  102. 
Shtllliark  ( Hicoria  mala),  40. 
Shellbark  'Hickory),  41. 
Shellbark  i  Hicoria  laciniosa),  41. 
Shellbark  Hickmy  {IHcoria  ovata), iO. 
Shellbark-lref,41. 
She  Pine,  19. 
She  I'itrh  l'ine.l9. 
Shin  Oak.  52. 

Shin  Oak  {(^uerci's ^ainbflii),52. 
Shin  Oak  (Qi'crciis  breviloba),5i. 
Shin  Oak  {Quercn.t  undidata),  'A. 
Shin  Oak  {Qucreiin  hrevi folia),  58. 
Shingle  Oak.  58. 
Shinglewood,  :il. 

Shittiiiiwood  (Rhamnitx  ii>irshiana),9<u. 
Shittimwood,  104. 
Shoepefi  Maple,  9-. 
Shore  Pine,  Iti. 
Short- flower  Mahogany,  69. 
Shortleaf  Pine,  18. 
Shortleal"  Pine  (Finns  tcedat,  17. 
Shortleaved  Pine  {Pima  rir<iiitiana).  18. 
ShortleaTe<l  Pine  {Pinus  ichinataK  IS- 
Shortleaved  Yellow  Pine.  IS. 
Short-pod  Honey  Locust,  xo. 
Shortshat  Pine  (Ptnw*  viifjinianai,  18. 
Shortshat  Pine  {Pimis  ecldnata),  18. 
Sbort  Shucks,  18. 
Shrub  Oak.  53. 
Shrnb  "Willow,  43. 
Shrubby  Maple,  91. 
Sierra  Brownbark  Pine,  15. 
Sierra  Kedbark  Pine,  16. 
Silktop  Palmetto.  37. 
Silky  "Willow,  45. 
Silverbell,  105. 
SilverbeU-tree,  105. 

Silverbell-tree  (Mohrodendron  dipterum).  105. 
Silver  Birch  {Betula  papyri/era).  i8. 
Silver  Birch  (Betula  liifea),  48. 
Silver  Fir  {Abies  grandis),  26. 
Silver  Fir  {Abies  concolor),  26. 
Silverleaf  Poplar.  97. 
Silverleaf  "Willow,  44. 
Silver-leaved  Maple,  92. 
Silver  Maple,  92. 
Silver  Oak,  86. 
Silver  Pine,  13. 

Silver  Pine  {Abies  balmmea),  25. 
Silver  Poplar,  47. 
Silver  Spruce.  21. 
Silver  Thatch.  37. 

Silver  "Willow  {Salix  setsili/olia),  44. 
Silver  "Willow  {Salix  discolor),  ■ii. 
SUvertop  Palmetto,  37. 
Simmon,  104. 
'  Simpleleaf  Locust,  82. 
Sina,  97. 
Singleleaf,  15. 
Single-leaf  Pinon,  15. 
Single  Spruce  {Picea  canadensis),  21. 
Single  Spruce  {Abie.'i  baltavtea).  25. 
Sinita.  97. 

Sir  Joseph  Bank's  Pine,  19. 
Siskiyou  Spruce,  22. 


Sitka  Cypros»a,  32. 

Sitka  Spruce,  22. 

Sitka  Willow.  45. 

Skunk  Spruce,  '.'1. 

Slash  Piue  {Pi)U'ii  timla),  17. 

Slash  Pine  {Piiiiin  echiitata),  18. 

Sla.sb  Pine  {Pinus  heterophylla) ,  19. 

Slippery  Elm,  60. 

Slippery  Elm  { Fremontodend ron  cali  foniicmn) ,  SS 

Sloe  {Pruntis  ainericana),  75. 

Sloe  {Pntnus  uinbellata),  76. 

Sloe  (  Virbumuui  prnnifoliuin),  111- 

Small-coiied  Monterey  Pine,  17. 

Small-fruit  Mountain  Ash,  70. 

Small-fruit  "White  Ash,  106. 

Small  L;iun-1, 102. 

Small-leaf  Haw,  74. 

Small-leaf  Horse-bean,  81. 

Small-leaf  Locust,  82. 

Small-leaved  Elm,  61. 

Small  Pignut  (Hickory),  41. 

Small  White  Birch,  47. 

Smoke-tree,  87. 

Smoking  Bean,  109. 

Smooth-fruited.  "White-le,(4ed  Limetree,  97. 

Smoothleaf  "Willow,  43. 

Smooth-leaved  Limetree,  96 

Smooth  Sumach,  88. 

Snapping  Hazel,  68. 

Snowdrop-tree  {Mohrodendron  carolininn),  105 

Snowdrop-tree,  105. 

Snowflower-tree,  108. 

Snowy  Poplar,  47. 

Soapberry,  94. 

Soapberry  {Sapindus  )iiargi7iatus),  94. 

Soft  Maple  {Acerglabriim),91. 

Soft  Maple  {Acer  sacchariiiuin),  92. 

Soft  Maple  {Acer  rtibruni).  92. 

Soft  Pine  (Pinus  strobus),  13. 

Soft  Pine  {Pinus  monticola),  14. 

Soldierwood,  96. 

Soledad  Pine,  15. 

Sonora  Ironwood,  83. 

Sophora,  81. 

Sorrel- tree,  102. 

Soulard  Apple ,  70. 

Sour  Cherry,  76. 

Sour  Gum  (A*i/.s'.s«  si/lvatica),  100. 

Sour  Gum  (Xyssa  aijuatica),  101. 

Sour  Gum  (Ori/dendium  arhoreum),  l(i2. 

Sour  Gum  Bush,  102. 

Sour  Tupelo,  101. 

Sourwood,  102. 

Southern  Buckthorn,  1U4. 

Southern  BuUace  Plum.  76. 

Southei'n  Crab  Apple.  70. 

Southern  Cypress,  27. 

Southern  Hard  Pine.  19. 

Southern  Heart  Pine.  19. 

Southern  Hemlock,  2:i. 

Southern  Mountain  Pine.  18. 

Southern  Pine.  19. 

Southern  Pitcli  Pine,  19. 

Southern  Prickly  .\sh,  84. 

Southern  Red  Juniper,  35. 

Southern  Yellow  Pine  {Fiiius ponderonat,  15. 


140 


Sontbern  Yellow  Vine  {Pinus  paliistrU),  19. 

Spanish  Bayonet,  38. 

Spanish  Bayonet  {Tiicca  aloifolia),  38. 

Spanish  Buckeye,  94. 

Spanish  Dagger,  38. 

Spanish  Oak  (Quercus  rubra),  56. 

Spanish  Oak  {Quercus  texana),  56. 

Sjianish  Oak  (Qtiercus  cocetnea),  H6. 

Spanish  Oak,  57. 

Siianish  Water  Oak,  .17. 

Spanish  "Wild  Cherry,  78. 

Sparkleberry,  101. 

Spatulate  Haw,  73. 

Sjiiceberry,  99. 

Spice-tree,  67. 

Spindle-tree,  90. 

Spoon  Hutch,  102. 

Spoonwood,  302. 

Spotted  Alder,  68. 

Spotted  Locust,  83. 

Spotted  Oak  {(^lercti*  texana),  56. 

SiKitted  Oak  {Qiieicux  Delulimi),  37. 

Spotted  Oak  (Quercus  nigra),  58. 

Siireading-cone  Bine,  17. 

Spruce  {Picea  inariana),  20. 

Spruce  (Picacanadeiins),  21. 

Spruce  {Picea  punijent),  21. 

Spruce  {Tstiga  canadentis).  22. 

Spruce  {Pseudotsuga  taxifolia),  23. 

Spruce  (var.  suberosa  Lcmni.),  24. 

Spruce  (Pseudotsuga  inacrocarpa).  2.5. 

Spruce  Bine  {Pinus  ttrobus),  13. 

Spruce  Bine  (Pinut  balfouriana),  15. 

Spruce  Bine  {Pimis  iinirrayatia),  16. 

Sjiruce  Bine  {Pinus  tceda),  17. 

Spruce  Bine  (Pi»«»  virginiatia),  18. 

Spruce  Bine  (Pinu.i  clauna).  18. 

Spruce  Pine,  19. 

Si»ruce  Bine  (Pinus  idiinata),  18. 

Spruce  Bine  {Pinus  glabra),  19. 

Spnu'e  Bine  (Pinus paluttr is).  19. 

Spruce  Bine  (Picea  inariana). '2'K 

Spruce  Bine  (Tsvga  canadensis), 22. 

Staghush,lll. 

Staghorn  Sumach,  87. 

Star-leaved  Gum,  68. 

Stave  Oak,  51. 

Sting-tongue,  .S4. 

Stink  Berry,  95. 

Stink  ("hcrry,95. 

Stinking  Ash,  9-3. 

Slinking  I'.uckeye. 93. 

Stinking  Cedar  {Tumivn  taxi/oliuin).  36. 

Stinking  Cedar  (Tumion  cfili/ornicum),  37. 

Stinking  Savin,  36. 

Stinkwood  {Rhamntts  caroliniana),^^. 

Stinkwood  (Xi/ssa  ."lylratica).  100. 

Stone-seed  Mexican  Biiion,  14. 

Stoi>i)er  {Eugenia  monticula).  95. 

Stopper,  98. 

Strawberry  Hush,!'!). 

Strawberry-tree,  9ii. 

Striped  Dogwood.  90. 

Striped  Kaple.  90. 

Strongback,  1(I8. 

Strongbark.  108. 


Stumjitree,  81. 

Sub- Alpine  Fir,  25. 

Sugar  Ash,  93. 

Sugarberry  (Celtis  occidenlalis),  62. 

Sugarberry,  62. 

Sugar  Maple,  91. 

Sugar  Pine,  14. 

Sugar-tree,  91. 

Sumach  {Rhus  liirta),Sl. 

Sumach  ( Rhus  copallina),  88. 

Sumach  (Rhus  vernix). 88. 

Summer  Haw  (Crattegu.s  ellijitica),'i. 

Summer  Haw,  74. 

Sun  loving  Pine,  17. 

Sunny-.slope  Bine,  17. 

Swamp  Ash  (Fraxinus  nigra),  106. 

Swamp  Ash  (Fraxinus  lanceolata),h>~. 

Swamp  Bay,  66. 

Swamp  Birch.  48. 

Swaiii])  Cedar,  32. 

Swamp  Chestnut  Oak  (Quercus prinii.<c),'t:.. 

Swam])  Chestnut  Oak  (Quercus  micliauxiit,5'i 

Swamp  Cottonwood,  45. 

Swamp  Cypress,  27. 

Swamp  Elm,  60. 

Swamp  Hickory  (Hicoria  minima),  40. 

Swamp  Hickory  {Hieoria  a(iuatica),40. 

Swamp  Laurel,  64. 

Swamp  Laurel  Oak,  58. 

Swamp  Magnolia,  64. 

Swamp  Majjle  (Acer  saccharin uw),  '.l2. 

Swamp  ^faple  (Acer  rubruni),  92. 

Swamp  Oak  (Quercus  lobata),  51. 

Swamp  Oak  (Quercu.s platanvide.t).  .)3. 

Swani])  Oak  (Quercus palustris),  57. 

Swamp  Bine  {Pi7ius  tceda).  17. 

Swamp  Bine  {Pinus  muricatu),  18. 

Swamp  Bine  {Pinus  heterophylla),  19. 

Swaiup  Boplar,  46. 

Swamp  Bost  Oak,  53. 

Swamp  Bed-Bay,  66. 

Swamp  Sassafras.  64. 

Swamj)  Spanisli  Oak,  57. 

Swamp  Sumach,  88. 

Swamp  Tupelo,  lltl. 

Swam])  Wliite  Oak  (Qurrcus  b/rata),  53. 

Swamp  White  Oak.  53. 

Swamp  White  Oak  ((Quercus  niiehauxii  .  .13. 

Swamji  Willow  (Salix i,igra),  42. 

Swamp  Willow  (Salix  di.icolur).  44. 

Swamp  Willow  Oak,  5ii. 

Sweet  I'.ay  (2Iagiioliu  glauca),  04. 

Sweet  Bay  (Persea  borbanin).  (iO. 

Sweet-bet  ried  Cedar,  36. 

Sweet  berry,  111. 

Sweet  Birch  {lietula  occidentalis),  48. 

Sweet  Birch,  49. 

Sweet  Buckeye.  94. 

Sweet  Cherry.  70. 

Sweet  Crab,  69. 

.Swect-t'ruited  Juniper,  36. 

Sweet  Gum,  68. 

Sweet  Haw,  111. 

Sweetleaf,  105. 

Sweet  Locust,  80. 

Sweet  Magnolia,  64. 


141 


Sweet-sconted  Crab,  69. 

Sweet  Vibunmiu.  111. 

Sweet  Walnut  41. 

Sweetwoo<l,  67. 

Switcli-luid  Hickory,  41. 

SycaiiMire  (rianera  aquatica),  01. 

Sycamore.  08. 

Sycamore  {Platanus  racemosat.Gi'. 

Sycamore  (Plataniis  vrightii).  69. 

Table-mountain  Pine.  18. 

Tacamahac.  46. 

Tallow-tree,  86. 

Tamarack  {Pin us  foiitorta).  10. 

Tamarack  (Pinus  )nvrrayana).  16. 

Tamarack,  20. 

Tamarack  i  Larix  occidentalis).  20. 

Tamarack  {.Larix  lifallii),  20. 

Tamarack  Pine.  16. 

Taiibaik  Oak  (<^«enit«  j?rmw«),  53. 

Tanliark  oak  (Quercus  velutina),51. 

Tanbark  Oak,  59. 

Tan  Bay,  ST. 

Tear-lilaukt't.  84. 

Texan  Ebony,  78. 

Texan  Oak.  56. 

Texas  Ash,  106. 

Texas  Buckeye,  94. 

Texas  Catsclaw,  78. 

Texas  Flowering  "Willow,  109. 

Texas  Lnngleaved  Pine.  19. 

Texas  Redbud,  80. 

Texas  White  Oak,  54. 

Texa.<  Yellow  Pine,  19. 

The  J.ishua.  38. 

Tliick  barked  Juniper.  36. 

Thick  Shellbark,  41. 

Thick  Shellbark  Hickory,  41. 

Thinleaf  Downy  Basswood,  97. 

Thomas  Elm,  61. 

Thomson  Hagnolia,  64. 

Thorn  {Crataegus  dmtglani),  71. 

Thorn  {Cratcegus  crus-galli).  71. 

Thorn  (CraUegtts  coccinea),  72. 

Thorn  (Cratcegus  tomentosa),73. 

Thorn  {Cratcegus  cordata),  73. 

Thorn  Apple  {Cratcegus  douglasii),  71. 

Thorn  Apple  {CratcBgus  crus-galli),  71. 

Thorn  Apple  {Cratcegus  coccinea).  T2. 

Thorn  Apple  (Cratcegus  toruentosa),  73. 

Thorn  Apple-tree  (Cratcegus  coccinea).  72. 

Thorn  Bush  {Cratcegus  crus-galli),  71. 

Thorn  Bush  (Cratcegus  coccinea),  72. 

Thorn  Locust,  80. 

Thorn  Plura  (Cratcegus  crus-galli),  71. 

Thorn  Plum  (Crataegus  coccinea),  72. 

Thorn  Plum  (Cra'cegus  tomeyitosa),  73. 

Thornless  Honey  Locust,  80. 

Thornless  Locust,  83. 

Thornless  Osage  Orange,  63. 

Thorn-tree  (Cratcegus  douglasii),  71. 

Thorn-tree  (Gledit.iia  triacanthos),  80. 

Thorny  Acacia,  80. 

Thorny  Loru.st,  80. 

Three-leaved  Maple,  93. 

Tliree-thorued  Acacia,  80. 

Thurber  Cactus.  97. 


Tideland  Spruce,  22. 

Tisswood.  105. 

Titi,  88. 

Titi  (Andromeda ferruginea),  102. 

Titi  (Oxifdendnim  arboreum),  102, 

Tollou,  74. 

Toothache-tree,  84. 

Torch  Pine,  17. 

Torchwood,  84. 

Tornillo,  79. 

Torrey  Pine,  15. 

Torrey's  Pine.  15. 

Torrey-tree,  36. 

Tough  Buckthorn,  103. 

Tough  Bumelia,  103. 

Toumey  Oak,  54. 

Toyon,  74. 

Tree  Haw,  74. 

Tree  Huckleberry,  101, 

Tree  Myrtle,  96. 

Tree  Palmetto,  37. 

Tree  Thorn,  74. 

Tree  Yucca,  38. 

Tremble,  45. 

Trembling  Aspen,  45. 

Trembling  Poplar,  45. 

Trident  Oak,  59. 

Trifoliate  Dwarf  Ash,  106. 

Truckee  Pine,  16, 

True  Cassena,  89. 

Tuberculated-coned  Pine,  17. 

Tack  Tuck,  27. 

Tulip  Poplar,  65. 

Tulip-tree,  65. 

Tupelo  (Xyssa  sylvatica),  100. 

Tupelo  (Xyssa  ogeche),  101. 

Tupelo  (Xyssa  aquatica),  101. 

Tupelo  Gum,  100. 

Turkey  Oak,  57. 

Turkey  Oak  (Quercut  brrvi/olia),  58. 

Turpentine  Pine,  19. 

Twistbranch  Locust,  82. 

Twisted  Pine,  16, 

Two-leaved  Insular  Pine,  17. 

Umbrella  China-tree,  85. 

Umbrella-tree,  65. 

Umbrella-tree  (Cornus  alternifolia),  100. 

Uiia  de  Gato,  79. 

Upland  Hickory,  40. 

Upland  Spruce  Pine,  18. 

Upland  Willow  Oak,  58. 

Utah  Juniper,  36. 

Valley  Mahogany,  69. 

Valley  Oak,  51. 

Valparaiso  Oak,  55, 

Variegated  Silver  Maple,  92. 

Variegated  Tulip-tree,  66. 

Vauquelinia,  69. 

Vermont  Poplar.  47. 

Viburnum,  111. 

Vine  Maple,  91. 

Virgilia,  81. 

Virginia  Mulberry-tree,  62. 

Virginia  Pine,  17. 

Virginia  Sumach,  87. 

Virginia  Thorn,  23. 


142 


Virjjiiii:!  Vrllow  IMiic,  IS. 

Vi(:i'.  no. 

AValer  Asli.  84. 

"Waliiliniih-ka.s,  67. 

Waahoo,  89. 

Waliiio  {Vimvs  racetnosa),  60. 

Walioo  ( Uhnus  alaia),  6] . 

■\Valioo  (Tilta  jnibegcens),  96. 

Wahoo  (Tiiia  hetfrojihylln),  97. 

AVahoo  Elm,  61. 

Wait-a  bit.  84. 

"Walnut  {.Taglans  cinerea),  :i9. 

"Walnut  {Juglaii.i  nigra),  39. 

"V\'aliiut  (Juglanx  rupestris),  39. 

Walnut  {.Tuglans  calif 01- iiica),  :59. 

AValnut  (Hicoria  ovata),  41. 

"Walnnt-trcp.  39. 

Walter's  Pine,  19. 

Ward  Willow,  42. 

Washington  Haw.  73. 

Washington  Palm.  38. 

Wa.shiugton  Thorn,  73. 

Water  Ash  (.leer  negundo),  93. 

Water  Ash  {Fraxinus  nigra),  106. 

Water  Ash  {Fraxinus  lanceolata).  107. 

Water  Ash,  107. 

Water  l{ee<'li  (Carpiniis  carolinianco.'yO. 

Water  Beech  {Plntaniig  occiitentalif).  fig. 

Water  IMrch  (Betuia  occidrntalit),  4S. 

Water  Hirch  (Betuia  nigra), 4S. 

Water  lUtternut,  40. 

Water  Elm  (  Uhnvs  americana),60. 

Water  Elm  (  Vlmug  alata),  61. 

Water  Elm  (Planera  aquatica),  61. 

Water  Gum,  101. 

Water  Hickory,  40. 

Water  Lily-tree,  65. 

Water  Locust,  80. 

Water  Maple  (Acer  gpicatnm),9\. 

Water  Maple  (.Icec  !iaccharinum).Q2. 

AVater  Maple  (.leer  ri(bruni),92. 

AVater  Oak  ((^i/ercMS  pahtstris).  57. 

Water  Oak,  58. 

AVater  Oak  (Qucrcus  laurifnlia).  58. 

AVater  Oak  (Quercus  imbricaria),59.   . 

AVater  Oak  ((^lerciis  phdlox),  59. 

AVater  Spanish  Oak,  57. 

Water  Spruce,  20. 

AVater  White  Oak, 53. 

AVaxberry,  42. 

Wax  Myrtle,  42. 

AVax  Myrtle  (Myrica  calif ornica) .  42. 

Weeping  American  Elm,  60. 

Weeping  Black  Cherry,  77. 

Weeping  Bull  Pine,  16. 

Weeping  Choke  Cherry,  77. 

Weeping  Dogwood.  100. 

Weeping  Douglas  Spruce,  24. 

Weeping  largetooth  Aspen.  45. 

Weeping  Locust,  83. 

AVeeping  Oak,  51. 

Weeping  Silver  Maple.  92. 

Weeping  Silver  Poplar,  47. 

Weeping  Spruce,  22. 

AVeeping  Spruce  (Tuxiga  mertensiana),23. 

Weeping  White  Poplar,  47. 


Weeping  Willow,  45. 

Western  Birch,  48. 

Western  Black  Pine.  16. 

Western  Black  Willow,  43. 

AVesteru  Catalpa,  109. 

AVestern  Cedar  (Tlivja pliiata),'M. 

Western  Ci'ilar  (.In nipenm  occldentalin), '.'■'>. 

Western  Chiniiuai)in,  51. 

Western  Choke  Cherry,  77. 

AVestern  Cotlee,  96. 

Western  Dogw  ood,  100. 

Western  Ilaw,  71. 

AVestern  Hawtliorn,  71. 

Western  Hemlock,  23. 

Western  Heniloik  Fir,  23. 

Western  Hemlock  Spruce,  23. 

Western  Juniper,  35. 

Western  Larch,  20. 

Western  or  California  Abler.  49. 

Western  or  Red  Abler,  49. 

Western  Pitch  Pine.  15. 

AVestern  Red  Cedar  (Juniperun  (iecidr,ifali.i).3i> 

Western  Red  Cedar  (Juniperun  titahentif.  3'i. 

Western  Serviceberry,  71. 

Western  Sbellbark.  41. 

Western  Spruce,  22. 

Western  Sugar  Maple,  92. 

Western  Sumach,  88. 

Western  Tamarack,  20. 

AVesteru  Walnut,  39. 

Western  AVbite  Kir,  26. 

Western  White  Oak,  52. 

Western  AVhite  Pine  (Pimis  inonticola).  14. 

AVestern  White  Pine  (Pinusjiexilit),  14. 

Western  Tew,  37. 

West  India  Cherry,  77. 

West  Indian  Birch,  85. 

AVeynioutli  Pine,  13. 

Whalioo  (  rimux  alata),  61. 

Whaboo  (Magnolia  fra.ierl),  64. 

WbalK.o  (Pti'lca  trifoliala),8i. 

AVhisky  Cherry.  77- 

AVbistlewood,90. 

White  Alder.  49. 

White  Ash,  106. 

White  Ash  (Fraxinun  lanceolata),  107. 

White  Ash  (Chionanthun  virgi)iica),  108. 

White  Balsam  (Abies  lagiocarpa),  25. 

White  Balsam  (Abies  concolon.  26. 

AVbitebark,  14. 

White-bark  Maple,  91. 

White-bark  Pine,  14. 

White  Basswood,  97. 

Whit.'  Bay,  64. 

White  Beech,  50. 

White  Birch,  47. 

AVhite  Birch  (Betuia  papyrifera).  48. 

White  Buttonwood,  99. 

AVhite  Cedar  (Libocedrus  decurrens),  29. 

AVhite  Cedar  (Thuja  occiden talis),  30. 

White  Cedar,  32. 

AVhite  Cedar  (Cupressvs  uiaenabiana),  32. 

AVhite  Cedar  (Cham.  Unvxoniana),  33. 

White  Cedar  (Jvniperus  ealifoniica),Z6. 

White  Cottonwood,  47. 

AVhite  Cypress,  27. 


143 


White  Dotted  Haw,  73. 

White  Elm.  60. 

■\Vliitf  Elm  {I'liiius  nicemosa),6l. 

Wliitf  Fir  {Abifx  lasiocaijia).  2.'>. 

"White  Fir.  20. 

White  Fir  (AbU-g  iirandis),-~6. 

White  Fir  (Abies  cu.icolor).  2C. 

White-flower  Clammy  locust.  8:J. 

White-flowered  Dwarf  Sumach.  88. 

White  FriDge,  107. 

White-fruit  Choke  Cherry,  77. 

Whitelieart  Il-ekory,  41. 

White  Hickory  (Hicoria  minima). M). 

White  Hickory  (Hicoria  ovata),AO. 

White  Hickory  iHicoriii  alba).  41. 

White  Hickory  (Hicoria glabra), 41. 

White  Holly.  8'J. 

White  Ironwood.  95. 

White  Laurel,  64. 

Whiteleaf  Oak,  55. 

White-leaved  Oak.  55. 

White  Lin(1.96. 

White  Locast.  82. 

White  Mangrove,  90. 

White  Maple  (Acer  7nacrophi/lliim),90. 

White  Maple  (Acer  sacchariniim),92. 

White  Maple  (Acer  rubrum),92. 

White  Mulherry,  62. 

White  Oak,  51. 

White  Oak  (Qiiercus  lobata),  51. 

White  Oak  (Q^iercug  garryana),  52. 

White  Oak  (Querms gambelii),  52. 

White  Oak  ( Qiiercus  minor),  52. 

White  Oak  (Qiiemig  acuminata).  53. 

White  Oak  (Quercus  breviloba),  54. 

White  Oak  (Quercus  douglasii),  54. 

White  Oak  (Quercus  ohlongifolia),  54. 

White  Oak  (Querent  arizonica),^. 

White  Pine,  13. 

White  Pine  (Pinxis  monticola),  13. 

White  Pine  (Finns  jiexilis).  14. 

White  Pine  (Firms  strobi/ornns).  14. 

White  Pine  (Finns  murrayana).  16. 

White  Pine  (Finu.i  glabra).  19. 

White  Pine  (Ficea  engelmanni),  21. 

White  Poplar  (Populus  tremuloides),  45. 

White  Poplar  (Popiilus  grand ! dent ata).  45. 

White  Poplar,  47. 

White  Poplar  (Liriodendroii  tulipifera).65. 

White  Spruce  (Ficea  mariana).  20. 

White  Spruce,  21. 

White  Spruce  (Ficea  engelmanni),  21. 

White  Spruce  (Ficea parrpana),  21. 

White-stem  Pine,  14. 

White  Stopper.  99. 

White  Thorn  (Crataegus  coceinea),  72. 

White  Thorn  (Crataegus  tomentosa),  73. 

White  Titi.  88. 

AThite  Walnut  (  Juglani  cinerea),  39. 

White  Walnut  (Hicoria  ovata).  41. 

White  Willow  (Salix ./fuviatilit),  43. 

White  Willow.  45. 

Whitewood  (Fopulus  deltoicUs).  47. 

Wliitewood  (Liriodendron  tulipifera),  65. 

Whitewood  (Drypete.f  lateriflora),  86. 

Whitewood  (Drypetes  keyensis),  86. 


Whitewood  (Vanella  tvinterana).  87. 
Whitewood  (IHlia  americann),  96. 
Wickup,  96. 
Wild  Apple,  70. 
Wild  Black  Cherry,  77. 
Wild  Cherry  (Frunus  cniargintita).  70. 
Wild  Cherry  (Frunus pennsylvanicu),  70. 
Wild  Cherry  (Fruntis  virginiana),  76. 
Wild  Cherry  (Frunus  demissa).  77. 
Wild  Cherry  (Frt:nt(.'<  tervtiria),  77. 
Wild  Cherry  (Frunus  iUci/olia),  78. 
Wild  China,  94. 
I   Wild  Cinnamon,  87. 
Wild  Coftce,  96. 
Wild  Coffee-bush,  96. 
Wild  Crab.  09. 
Wild  Crab  Apple,  70. 
Wild  Date,  38. 
Wild  Dilly.  104. 
Wild  Fig  (Ficus  aurea),  63. 
Wild  Fig  (Ficus  impulnea).  63. 
Wild  Goose  Plum,  75. 
Wild  Hawthorn,  71. 
Wild  Indian  Pear,  71. 
Wild  Lilac,  96. 
Wild  lime,  84. 
Wild  Lime-tree,  101. 
Wild  Linden,  97. 

Wild  Olive  (Sideroxylon  ma.tticlwdendron) ,  103. 
Wild  Olive  (Osmanthus  americanus),  108. 
Wild  Olive-tree  (Xy.ssa  ai/uatica),  101. 
Wild  Olive-tree  (Mohrodendron  catolinuin),  105. 
Wild  Orange  (Frumis  caroliniana),  77. 
Wild  Orange  (Xanthoxylum  clava-hercvlis),  84. 
Wild  Peach,  77. 
Wild  Peartree,  100. 
Wild  Plum,  75. 

Wild  Plum  {Frunus  nigra),  75. 
Wild  Plum  (Frxinus  subcordata),  75. 
Wild  Plum  (Frunus  umbellata).  76. 
Wild  Plum  (Frunus  emarginatat.  76. 
Wild  Raisin,  111. 

Wild  Red  Cherry  (Frunus  angu.flifolia),  75. 
Wild  Red  Cherry,  76. 
Wild  Rose  Bay,  102. 
Wild  Rubber-tree,  63. 
Wild  Sapodilla,  104. 
Wild  Tamarind,  78. 
Wild  Thorn,  71. 
Williamson's  Spruce.  23. 
Willow  (Salix  nigra),  42. 
Willow  (Salix  amygdaloides).4J. 
Willow  (Salix  Icecigata).  43. 
Willow  (Salix  lasiandra).4Z. 
Willow  (Salix  jiuriatili.'!),  43. 
WUlow  (Salix  sessili/olia).  ii. 
Willow  (Salix  discolor),  44. 
Willow  (Salix  la.tioleiiis).  44. 
Willow  (Salix  nnttaUii).  44. 
Willow  Cottonwood,  40. 

Willow  Haw,  71. 
Willowleaf  Cherry,  77. 

Willowleaf  Cockspur,  71. 
Wiilowleaved  Cottonwood.  46. 
Willow  Oak  (Qnercu.f  lauri/olia),  58. 
Willow  Oak,  59. 


144 


Wine-tree,  70. 

Wing  Elm,  61. 

Winf;t(l  Elm.  61. 

Wing-rib  Mountain  Suniacb,88. 

Winter  Bloom,  68. 

Witcb  Elm,  61. 

Witch  Hazel.  08. 

Wood  Laurel,  10-J. 

Woolly  Larcli,20. 

Woollyleaf  Cherry,  76. 

WooUyleaf  Plum,  75. 

Taupou  (Ilexeasiti)u'  wii//i/oJio),89. 

Yaupon  (Holly),  89. 

Yellow  Asb,  82. 

Yellow-bark,  57. 

Yellow-barked  Oak,  57. 

Yellow  Basswood,  90. 

Yellow  Birch,  48. 

Yellow  Buckeye,  94. 

Yellow  Buckthorn,  95. 

Yellow  Cedar,  32. 

Yellow  Cedar  (Jiniipenit  Ofci(lentali*).3b. 

Yellow  Cottonwood,  47. 

YeUow  Cucumber-tree,  65. 

Yellow  Cj-press,  32. 

Yellow-flowered  Cucumber-tree,  65. 

Yellow-flowered  Magnolia,  65. 

Yellow  Fir  (FseudoUuga  taxifolia),  24,. 

Yellow  Fir  (Abies  grandit),  20. 

YeUow-fruit  Fir,  27. 

Yellow  Gum-tree,  100. 

Yellow  Haw,  74. 

Yellowfruit  Dotted  Haw  73. 


Yellow  Lo(  list  (Claiiia.stiii  liilea).82. 

Yellow  Locu.st  [Kobinia i>teiid(iracia).S2. 

Yellow  Oak  (Quereus  oiniTninata).  i>'.i. 

Yellow  Oak,  56. 

Yellow  Pine  ( I'inus ponderoia) ,  15. 

Yellow  Pine  {Pintis ponderosa  scojivlonim),  15. 

Yellow  Pine  ( Finns  tceda),  17. 

Yellow  Pine  {Finns  rigida),  17. 

Yellow  Pine  (Finns  echinata),  IS. 

Yellow  Pine  (Finns 2>alnxtris),  l'.>. 

Yellow  Plum  (Friinus  americanai.  75. 

Yellow  Plum  (Fnnuts angitsti/oliut.m. 

Yellow  Poplar,  65. 

Yellow  Spruce,  21. 

Yellow  Willow,  44. 

Yellow-wood  (Toxi/lon  pomi/ernm),  63. 

Yellow-wood,  82. 

Yellow-wood  (Xanthoxylum  cribrosunn.Bi- 

Yellow-wood  (Gotinns  cotinoides).  87. 

Yellow-wood  (Schcefferiafrulescens),  90. 

Yellow-wood  (Rhamnus  caroliniana),  9."». 

Yellow-wood  (Khamnvs  jjurshiana),  96. 

Yellow-wood  (Symplocos  tinctoria).  105. 

Yew  (Cupresxus  guadalupensis),  32. 

Yew  (Tumion  call/ornicum),Z7. 

Yew  (Taxvs  brevifolit),'il. 

Yew  (Taxui _floridana),'i'i. 

Yew  Pine,  20. 

Yewleaf  Willow,  44. 

Yopon,  89. 

Yucca  Cactus,  38. 

Zina,  97 


'^-'g^^.  -.  ilw^^M^C^ 


y^^uyAJT^^ciouA 


Ji^CuUM 


fj^ 


^  -^^%' 


Lrrt 


f^»t± 


U.  S.   DEPARTMENT    OF  AGRICULTURE.       [ 


BU'.LETIN  No.  10. 


DIVISION  OF  FORESTRY. 


TIMBER: 


<i4^ 


AN  ELEMENTARY  DISCUSSION  OF  THE  CHARACTERISTICS 
AND  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD. 


FILIBERT    ROTH, 

Special  Agent  in  Charge  of  Timber  Physics. 


UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF 

B.  E.  FERNOW, 

CHIEF  OF  THE  DIVISION  OF  FORESTRV, 


\ 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT      PRINTING     OFFICE. 
1895. 


LE'n^ER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Forestry, 
Washington,  D.  C,  September  15,  1895. 

Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  for  pubhcation  a  brief 
but  comprehensive  discussion  of  the  characteristics  and  properties  of 
wood  in  general  and  of  our  American  timbers  in  particular,  which  it 
is  lioi)ed  may  be  useful  to  engineers,  architects,  carpenters,  lumbermen, 
and  all  wood  workers.  The  paper  was  prepared  by  Mr.  Filibert  Roth, 
in  charge  of  the  investigations  in  timber  physics. 

Although  much  of  the  information  contained  in  this  bulletin  exists 
in  the  experience  of  practical  woodworkers  and  in  books  in  other  lan- 
guages, it  has  never  before  been  i)ublished  in  Enghsh  in  systematic 
and  accessible  form  and  with  special  application  to  American  timbers. 

Such  a  i)ublication  can  not,  of  course,  exhaust  any  part  of  this  great 
subject.  It  is  desired  that  it  may  be  followed  by  a  more  elaborate 
treatise  when  additional  knowledge  has  been  gained  through  the  inves- 
tigations now  in  progress.  The  information  it  contains  is  largely  based 
on  actual  experiment  and  scientific  observation,  and  will,  it  is  hoped, 
not  only  ex])lain  the  experiences  of  the  practical  worker  with  his  mate- 
rial, but  will  remove  erroneous  notions,  and  thus  aid  in  improving  the 
practice  and  lead  to  a  more  rational  use  of  our  forest  resources. 
Respectfully, 

B.  E.  Fernow, 
Chief  of  Division  of  Forestry, 

Hon.  .].  .STEKMNd  Morton, 

Secretary. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Introduction 5 

Characteristics  and  properties  of  wood 11 

I. — Structure  and  appearance 11 

Classes  of  trees 11 

Wood  of  coniferous  trees 12 

Bark  and  pith 13 

Sap  and  heart  wood 13 

The  annual  or  yearly  ring- 14 

Spring  and  summer  wood : 15 

Anatomical  structure 16 

Wood  of  broad-leaved  trees 18 

Minute  structure 20 

Different  grain  of  wood 21 

Color  and  odor 24 

Resonance 24 

II.— Weight  of  wood 25 

III. — Moisture  in  wood 29 

IV. — Shrinkage  of  wood - 32 

V. — Mechanical  properties  of  wood 37 

Stiffness 38 

Cross  breaking  or  bending  strength 41 

Tension  and  compression 43 

Shearing 45 

Influence  of  weight  and  moisture  on  strength 45 

Hardness  and  shearing  across  the  grain 47 

Cleavability 48 

Flexibility 49 

Toughness 49 

Practical  conclusions 50 

VI. — Chemical  properties  of  wood 51 

VII. — Durability  and  decay 54 

How  to  distinguish  the  different  kinds  of  wood : 59 

How  to  use  the  key 62 

Key  to  the  more  importaut  woods  of  North  America 64 

I. — Non-porous  woods  (includes  all  coniferous  woods) 64 

II. — Ring-porous  woods 65 

III. — Diffuse-porous  woods 69 

List  of  the  more  important  woods  of  the  United  States 72 

A. — Coniferous  woods 72 

B. — Broad-leaved  woods  (hardwoods) 76 

3 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Paga 
Fig.    1.  A  piece  of  sawn  timber  cut  through  along  the  pith,  illustrating  its 

structural  aggregates 9 

2.  Possibilities  of  cutting  timber  from  a  log  with  reference  to  position  of 

grain 9 

3.  Board  of  pine 15 

4.  Wood  of  spruce 16 

5.  Group  of  fibers  from  pine  wood 17 

6.  Block  of  oak 18 

7.  Board  of  oak 18 

8.  Cross  section  of  oak 19 

9.  Isolated  fibers  and  cells 20 

10.  Cross  section  of  basswood  (magnified) 21 

11.  Spiral  grain 22 

12.  Alternating  spiral  grain  in  cypress 22 

13.  Wavy  grain  in  beech 22 

14.  Section  of  wood  showing  position  of  the  grain  at  base  of  a  limb 23 

15.  Cross  section  of  a  group  of  wood  fibers 25 

16.  Isolated  fibers 26 

17.  Orientation  of  wood  samples 27 

18.  Short  pieces  of  wood  fiber 32 

19.  Isolated  cell 32 

20.  Warping  of  wood i 32 

21.  Formation  of  checks 33 

22.  Small  pith  ray  iu  oak 34 

23.  Effects  of  shrinkage 35 

24.  Honeycombed  board 36 

25.  Bending  a  beam 39 

26.  Specimen  iu  tension  test 43 

27.  Straiglit  and  cross  grained  wood 43 

28.  Etfect  of  knots  and  their  position 43 

29.  Compression  endwise 44 

30.  Longitudinal  shearing 44 

31.  Various  forms  of  failure 45 

32.  Test  iu  hardness  and  shearing  across  the  grain 47 

33.  Cleavage 48 

34.  "  Shelf-fungus  on  the  stem  of  a  pine 55 

35.  Fungus  threads  in  pine  wood 55 

36.  Cells  of  maple  wood  attacked  by  fungus  threads 56 

37.  Nonporons  woods 60 

38.  Ring  porous  woods 61 

39.  Dilfnse-porous  woods 61 

40.  Wood  of  coffee  tree 66 

41.  Wood  of  black,  white,  and  green  ash 67 

42.  Wood  of  red  oak 68 

43.  Wood  of  chestnut 68 

44.  Wood  of- hickory 68 

45.  Wood  of  beech,  sycamore,  and  birch 70 

46.  Wood  of  maple 70 

47.  ^Voodof  elm 71 

48.  Wood  of  walnut 71 

49.  Wood  of  cherry 71 

4 


INTRODUCTION. 


Wood  is  now,  has  ever  been,  and  will  continue  to  be,  the  inost  widely 
useful  material  of  construction.  It  has  been  at  the  base  of  all  material 
civilization.  In  spite  of  all  the  substitutes  for  it  in  the  shape  of  metal, 
stone,  and  other  materials,  the  consumption  of  wood  in  civilized  coun- 
tries has  never  decreased;  nay,  applications  in  new  directions  have 
increased  its  use  beyond  the  saving  effected  by  the  substitutes.  Thus, 
in  England,  the  per  capita  consumption  has  increased  in  the  last  fifty 
years  more  than  double,  a  fact  which  is  especially  notable,  as  the  bulk 
of  the  timber  used  there  must  be  imported,  while  iron  and  coal  are 
plentiful  in  Great  Britain. 

In  the  United  States  we  can  only  estimate  from  the  partial  data  fur- 
nished by  census  returns.  By  these  we  find  the  per  capita  consumption 
to  have  increased  for  every  decade  since  1800  at  the  rate  of  from  20  to 
25  per  cent. 

Although  wood  has  been  in  use  so  long  and  so  universally,  there 
still  exists  a  remarkable  lack  of  knowledge  regarding  its  nature  in 
detail,  not  only  among  laymen,  but  among  those  who  might  be  expected 
to  know  its  properties.  As  a  consequence,  the  practice  is  often  faulty 
and  wasteful  in  the  manner  of  its  use.  Experience  has  been  almost 
the  only  teacher,  and  notions — sometimes  right,  sometimes  wrong — 
rather  than  well-substantiated  facts  lead  the  wood  consumer.  Iron, 
steel,  and  other  metals  are  much  better  known  in  regard  to  their  prop- 
erties than  wood.  The  reason  for  this  imperfect  knowledge  lies  in 
the  fact  that  wood  is  not  a  homogeneous  material,  like  the  metals,  but 
a  complicated  structure,  and  so  variable  that  one  stick  will  behave  very 
differently  from  another  stick,  although  cut  from  the  same  tree.  Not 
only  does  the  wood  of  one  species  differ  from  that  of  another,  but  the 
butt  cut  differs  from  the  top  log;  theheartwood  from  the  sapwood;  the 
wood  of  the  quickly  grown  sapling  of  the  abandoned  field  from  that  of 
the  slowly  grown  old  monarch  of  the  forest.  Even  the  manner  in  which 
the  tree  was  sawed  and  the  condition  in  which  the  wood  was  cut  and 
kept  influence  its  behavior  and  quality.  It  is,  therefore,  extremely 
difficult  to  study  the  material  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  general 
laws,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  a  specific  inspection  of  the 
individual  stick  which  is  to  be  applied  to  a  certain  purpose.  The 
selection,  not  only  of  the  most  suitable  kinds,  but  of  each  stick,  for  the 

6 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

purpose  for  whicL  it  is  fit  will  enter  into  that  improved  practice  to 
which  we  may  look  both  for  greater  economy  and  greater  efficiency. 

The  object  of  this  biilletiii  is  to  record  more  systematically  than  has 
been  done  hitherto  the  kuowledge  wliich  exists  and  which  will  help  the 
wood  consumer  in  tlieclioice  of  his  material  and  in  determining  whether, 
and  if  so  why,  a  given  stick  will  answer  his  purpose.  Such  ins[)cction 
requires,  first,  a  knowledge  of  the  gross  structure  and  appearance, 
which  give  indications  of  quality  and  behavior,  and  then,  for  finer 
application,  a  knowledge  of  the  minute  anatomical  or  microscoi>ic 
structure.  The  minute  structure  will  often  explain  the  difference  in 
behavior  of  various  kinds  of  wood,  and  a  knowledge  of  it  is  almost 
indispensable  in  distinguishing  the  various  kinds. 

In  the  countries  of  Europe  the  kinds  of  wood  used  in  construction 
and  manufacture  are  so  few  that  there  is  but  little  difficulty  in  distin- 
guishing them.  In  our  own  country  the  great  variety  of  woods,  and  of 
useful  woods  at  that,  often  makes  the  mere  distinction  of  the  kind  or 
species  of  tree  most  difficult.  Thus  there  are  at  least  eight  junes  (of 
the  thirty-five  native  ones)  in  the  market,  some  of  which  so  closely 
resemble  each  other  in  their  minute  structure  that  they  can  hardly  be 
told  apart;  and  yet  they  differ  in  quality  and  should  be  used  separately, 
although  they  are  often  mixed  or  confounded  in  the  trade.  Of  the 
thirty-six  oaks,  of  which  probably  not  less  than  six  or  eight  are  mar- 
keted, we  can  readily  recognize  bj^  means  of  their  minute  anatomy  at 
least  two  tribes — the  white  and  the  black  oaks.  The  distinction  of  the 
species  is,  however,  as  yet  uncertain.  The  same  is  true  as  to  the  eight 
kinds  of  hickory,  the  six  kinds  of  ash,  etc.  Before  we  shall  be  able  to 
distinguish  the  wood  of  these  species  unfailingly,  more  study  will  be 
necessary.  The  key  given  in  the  present  publication,  therefore,  is  by 
necessity  only  provisional,  requiring  further  elaboration.  It  unfortu- 
nately had  to  be  based  largely  on  external  appearances,  which  are  not 
always  reliable.  Sometimes,  for  general  practical  purposes,  this  mere 
appearance,  with  some  minor  attributes,  such  as  color,  taste,  etc.,  are 
together  sufficient,  esi)ecially  when  the  locality  is  known  from  which 
the  species  came,  and  in  the  log  pile  the  determination  may  by  these 
means  be  rendered  possible  when  a  single  detached  piece  will  leav  e  us 
doubtful  as  to  the  species.  In  the  market  the  distinctions  are  often 
most  uncertain,  and  a  promiscuous  application  of  names  adds  to  the 
confusion.  To  be  sure,  there  is  not  nmch  virtue  in  knowing  the  correct 
name,  except  that  it  assists  us  in  describing  the  exact  kind  of  material 
we  desire  to  obtain.  Nor  is  there  always  much  gained  in  being  able  to 
identify  the  species  of  wood,  but  that  it  predicates  certain  qualities 
which  are  usually  found  in  the  species. 

In  selecting  material,  tlien,  for  special  purposes  we  first  determine 
what  species  to  use  as  having  either  one  quality  which  is  foremost  in 
our  requirements,  or  several  qualities  in  combination,  as  shown  by 
actual  experience  or  by  experiment. 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

The  uses  of  tlie  various  woods  depend  ou  a  variety  of  conditions. 
The  carpenter  and  builder,  using;  large  quantities  of  material  and 
bestowing-  ;i  miniiimin  amount  of  labor  on  the  greater  part  of  the  same, 
uses  those  kinds  which  are  abundant,  and  hence  cheap,  to  be  had  in 
large  dimensions,  light  to  ship,  soft  to  work  and  to  nail,  and  fairly  still 
and  insect  proof-— a  combination  represented  in  the  conifers.  They 
need  not  be  handsome,  hard,  tongli,  or  very  strong,  and  may  shrink 
even  after  they  are  in  pla<;e.  When  it  comes  to  hnishing-woods,  more 
stress  is  laid  on  color  and  grain  and  that  tlie  wood  shall  shrink  as  little 
as  possible. 

The  furniture  maker,  wlio  bestows  a  maximum  amount  of  work  on 
his  fhaterial,  needs  a  wood  that  combines  strength,  and  sometimes 
toughness,  with  beauty  and  hardness,  that  takes  a  good  polish,  keeps 
joint,  and  does  not  easily  indent.  It  must  not  warp  or  shrink  when  once 
in  place,  but  it  need  not  be  light  or  soft  or  insect  proof  or  abundant  in 
any  one  kind,  and  in  large  dimensions,  nor  yet  particularly  cheap. 

Toughness,  strength,  and  hardness  combined  are  sought  by  the 
wagon  maker.  The  carriage  builder,  cooper,  and  shingle  maker  look 
for  straight-grained,  easy-splitting  woods,  and  for  a  long  fiber,  the 
absence  of  disturbing  resinous  and  coloring  matter,  knots,  etc.  Dura- 
bility under  exposure  to  the  weather,  resistance  to  indentation,  and  the 
holding  of  spikes  are  required  for  a  good  railroad  tie;  lasting  qualities, 
elasticity,  and  proportionate  dimensions  of  length  and  diameter,  for 
telegraph  poles. 

Sometimes  in  practice  it  is  immaterial  whether  the  stick  be  of  white 
oak  or  red  oak,  and  many  wood  yards  make  no  distinction,  in  fact  do 
not  know  any,  but  the  experienced  cooper  will  quickly  distinguish,  not 
by  name,  perhaps,  but  by  quality,  the  more  porous  red  or  black  oak 
from  the  less  porons  white  species.  On  the  other  hand,  the  very  same 
white  oak — Quercus  alba.,  usually  a  superior  article — may  furnish  so 
poor  material  for  a  handle  or  a  plow  beam  that  a  stick  of  red  oak  would 
be  preferable.  The  inspection,  then,  must  be  made  not  only  for  the 
species  but  for  the  quality,  with  reference  to  the  purpose  for  which  the 
stick  is  to  be  used. 

That  the  inspection  should  have  regard  to  defects  and  unhealthy 
condition  (often  indicated  by  color)  goes  without  saying,  and  such 
inspection  is  usually  practiced.  That  knots,  even  the  smallest,  are 
defects  which  for  some  uses  condemn  the  material  altogether  needs 
hardly  to  be  mentioned,  but  that  season  checks,  even  those  that  have 
closed  by  subsequent  shrinkage,  remain  elements  of  Aveakness  is  not 
so  readily  appreciated.  Yet  there  can  not  be  any  doubt  of  this,  since 
the  intimate  connection  of  the  wood  fibers,  once  interrupted,  is  never 
reestablished.  The  careful  wood  user,  therefore,  is  concerned  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  his  material  was  treated  after  the  felling,  for  accord- 
ing to  the  more  or  less  careful  seasoning  of  it  the  season  checks,  not 
altogether  avoidable,  are  more  or  less  abundant.     This  is  practically 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

recognized  by  splitting  wagon  and  cooperage  stock  in  the  woods  and 
seasoning  it  partly  shaped,  and  also  in  making  a  distinction,  often  unnec- 
essarily, between  air-dried  and  kiln-dried  material. 

Where  strength  is  required,  the  weight  of  the  material  will  give 
good  indications,  for  it  is  now  pretty  well  establislied  that  weight  and 
strength  go  more  or  less  together.  But  since  weight  in  the  green  wood 
is  made  uj)  of  at  least  three  elements,  namely,  that  of  the  wood  fiber 
itself,  that  of  the  water  in  the  cell  sjDaces,  and  that  of  the  water  in  tlie 
cell  walls,  the  weight  is  deceptive  unless  we  know  also  the  moisture 
condition  of  the  stick  or  else  ascertain  the  specific  weight  of  the  dry 
wood.  That  the  moisture  contents  influence  considerably  the  strength 
of  the  material  is  now  well  prov^en,  strength  increasing  with  loss  of 
inoistur?,  and  hence  in  practice  allowance  should  be  made  according  to 
whether  the  stick  is  to  be  used  where  it  will  be  exposed  to  the  weather 
or  under  cover  and  painted. 

In  some  woods  like  the  pines  and  the  "ring  porous"  woods,  such  as 
oak,  chestnut,  and  hickory,  in  which  each  animal  layer  or  ring  is  made 
up  of  two  distinct  parts,  the  loose,  porous  spring  wood  and  the  dense 
and  firm  summer  wood,  the  proportion  of  the  latter  per  square  inch  of 
cross  wSection — usnally  but  not  always  depending  on  the  width  of  the 
ring — furnishes  a  more  direct  criterion  than  the  weight  alone.  The 
color  effect  of  itself  gives  indications  of  the  Weight,  since  both  weight 
and  color  eftect  depend  on  the  same  feature,  namely,  quantity  of  mate 
rial;  hence  the  larger  quantity  of  dense  summer  wood  on  the  cross 
section  occasions  darker  color,  which  is  usually  indicative  of  strength. 
Color,  too,  must  be  consulted  to  detect  incipient  decay.  Again,  the 
difference  in  firmness  and  hardness  of  the  summer  wood  itself,  as  tested 
by  the  knife  or  recognized  in  the  difference  of  color  effect  by  the  prac- 
ticed eye,  furnishes  another  criterion  in  the  selection  of  the  stick. 

Lastly,  the  manner  in  which  the  stick  is  sawed  from  the  tree  has  a 
remarkable  influence  upon  its  qualities  and  behavior,  and  it  should, 
therefore,  either  be  specially'  sawed  or  selecte<l  with  a  view  to  its  char- 
acter and  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used.  This  is  a  matter 
fully  appreciated  among  only  a  few  wood  users,  like  the  wheelwrights, 
piano  makers,  etc.,  but  it  needs  to  be  observed  much  more  than  it  is, 
even  in  building.  Quarter  or  rift  sawing,  i.  e.,  cutting  sticks  or  boards 
out  of  the  log  in  such  a  manner  that  the  annual  rings  are  cut  through 
as  nearly  as  possible  radially,  has  lately  been  practiced  largely  for  the 
sake  of  the  beauty  of  the  even  grain  thus  obtained,  and  also  for  floor- 
ing on  account  of  the  better  wear  which  the  even  exposure  of  the  grain 
(hard  bands  of  summer  wood  on  edge)  secures;  but  it  should  be  much 
more  widely  applied  to  secure  greater  strength  and  more  uniform 
seasoning  and  thus  to  reduce  to  some  extent  the  one  drawback  to  wood 
as  a  material  of  construction,  that  is,  its  liabilility  to  "working" 
(shrinking  and  swelling).  The  reason  for  the  superiority  of  quarter- 
sawed  pieces,  as  well  as  the  general  fact  that  the  manner  of  sawing 


INTRODUCTION. 


out  a  stick  affects  the  general  character  and  behavior  of  the  same,  will 
appear  from  the  following  considerations  : 

A  square  column  or  beam  cut  so  as  to  contain  the  heart  or  pith  of 
the  tree  in   its   center — which,  by  the  way,  is  tlie  weakest  part  on 


Fig.  1 — A  piece  of  sawn  timber  cut  tbrough  along  the  pith,  illustrating  its  struetunil  aggregates. 

account  of  the  many  knots  which  it  invariably  and  necessarily  con- 
tains— consists  in  the  main  of  five  structural  aggregates  (see  fig.  1), 
namely:  (1)  In  the  center  a  cone  of  wood  fibers  with  the  base  in  the 
butt  end  and  the  apex  in  the  top  end,  the  base  representing  the  rings 
of  as  many  years  as  it  took  the  tree  to  attain  the  height  of  the  column; 
none  of  the  fibers  belonging  to  these  rings  appear  in  the  top  section 
excepting  those  of  the  last  ring  wliich  forms  the  a])cx  of  the  cone;  (2) 
a  hollow  cylinder  of  material  surrounding  the  cone,  all  fibers  of  which 
are  found  in  both  sections  and  con- 
tinuously through  the  whole  length 
of  the  column;  all  the  entire  rings  at 
the  bottom  belong  in  this  cylinder, 
and  undoubtedly  form  the  strongest 
part  of  the  column ;  (3)  surrounding 
this  cylinder  a  jjartial  cylindrical 
envelope  of  wood  fibers,  all  of  which 
are  represented  in  the  top  section, 
but  only  a  part  appear  at  the  corners 
of  the  bottom ;  most  of  them,  there 
fore,  do  not  run  through  the  whole 
length,  but  are  cut  through  at  vary- 
ing lengths,  thereby  presenting  the 
"bastard  faces"  on  the  sides  of  the 
column ;  (4)  a  partial  envelope  whose 
radial  extent  is  limited  by  the  corners  of  the  basal  section,  imperfect  at 
both  ends;  (5)  the  corners  at  the  top,  three-sided  pyramids  with  the 
base  in  the  top  section,  the  fibers  running  out  at  varying  lengths. 

Now,  it  will  be  readily  admitted  that  each  of  these  ''  structural  aggre- 
gates" has  a  different  value  in  the  combined  strength  ot  the  whole.  If 
the  stick  be  cut  with  the  center  or  pith  in  one  side  (see  fig.  2)  all 
these  aggregates  will  be  halved;  if  the  stick  be  cut  out  differently, 
for  instance,  with  the  heart  entirely  out  or  if  it  be  made  longer  or 


g  h 

Fig.  2.— Possibilities  of  cutting  timber  from  a 
log  -with  reference  to  position  of  grain. 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

shorter,  or  rectangular  instead  of  scjuare,  in  each  ca«e  the  proportion 
of  each  of  the  aggregates  changes,  and  lience  it  stands  to  reason  tiiat 
the  strengtli  of  the  column,  or  beam,  or  stick,  changes  acc(ndiug  to 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  cut  from  the  tree.  This  most  evident  and 
important  fact  has,  it  seems,  escaped  our  best  engineers  and  experi- 
menters, who  have  tested  beams  without  taking  account  of  this  disturb- 
ing element,  and  it  is  certainly  overlooked  most  generally  by  builders 
and  cari)t'nters  in  their  selection  of  material. 

While  it  may  perhaps  not  be  expected  that  the  sawing  at  the  mill 
will  be  done  with  more  care  so  as  to  secure  the  best  results  in  applica- 
tion, or  that  the  special  advantage  of  quarter  sawing  will  soon  be  suffi- 
ciently apprecnited  so  as  to  extend  its  use  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
greater  efficiency  of  the  quarter  sawed  material  will  compensate  for  the 
greater  expense  of  the  operation,  wood  users  may  at  least  be  expected 
to  make  their  selections  from  the  sawed  material  in  the  yard,  and 
shai)e  it  for  their  particular  use  with  greater  care. 

There  is  no  country  in  which  wood  is  more  lavisWy  used  than  in  the 
United  States,  aiul  none  in  which  nature  has  more  bountifully  provided 
for  all  reasonable  re<inirements.  In  the  absence  of  proper  eftbrts  to 
secure  reproduction,  the  most  valuable  kinds  are  rapully  being  deci- 
mated, and  the  necessity  of  alnore  rational  and  careful  use  of  what 
remains  is  clearly  a])parent.  By  greater  care  in  selection,  however,  not 
only  can  the  duration  of  the  supply  be  extended,  but  more  satisfactory 

results  will  accrue  from  its  use. 

B.  E.  Fernow. 
Washington,  D.  C,  September  15,  1895. 


TIMBER. 


CHARACTERISTICS  AND  PROPERTIliS  OF  WOOL). 

I— STRUCTURE  AND  APPEARANCE. 

The  structure  of  wood  allbrds  the  only  reliable  means  of  distinf^uish 
iug  the  different  kinds.  Color,  weight,  smell,  and  other  appearances, 
which  are  often  direct  or  indirect  results  of  structure,  may  be  helpful  in 
this  distinction  but  can  not  be  relied  upou  entirely.  In  addition,  struc- 
ture underlies  nearly  all  the  technical  properties  of  this  imporrant 
]iroduct  and  furnishes  an  explanation  why  one  piece  differs  as  to  these 
properties  from  another. 

Structure  explains  why  oak  is  heavier,  stronger,  and  tougher  than 
pine;  why  it  is  harder  to  saw  and  ])lane,  and  why  it  is  so  much  more 
difficult  to  season  without  injury.  From  its  less  porous  structure  alo)ie, 
it  is  evident  that  a  piece  of  a  young  and  thrifty  oak  is  stronger  than  the 
porous  wood  of  an  old  or  stunted  tree;  or  that  Georgia  or  h)ngleaf  pine 
excels  white  pine  in  weight  and  strength.  Keeping  especially  in  mind 
the  arrangement  and  direction  of  the  fibers  of  wood,  it  is  clear  at  once 
why  knots  and  "crossgrains"  interfere  with  the  strength  of  timber. 

It  is  due  to  structural  peculiarities  that  "honeycombing"  occurs  in 
rapid  seasoning,  that  "checks"  or  cracks  extend  radially  and  follow 
pith  rays,  that  tangent  or  "  bastard  "  boards  shrink  and  warp  mor  e  than 
quartered  lumber.  These  same  peculiarities  enable  cherry  and  oak  to 
take  a  better  finish  than  basswood  or  coarse  grained  pine. 

Moreover,  structure,  aided  by  color,  determines  the  beauty  of  wood. 
All  the  pleasing  figures,  whether  in  a  hard-pine  ceiling,  a  desk  of  quar- 
tered oak,  or  in  the  beautiful  panels  of  "curly"  or  "bird's-eye"  maple 
decorating  the  saloon  of  a  ship  or  a  palace  car,  are  due  to  differences 
in  the  structure  of  the  wood.  Knowing  this,  the  appearance  of  any 
particular  section  can  be  foretold,  and  almost  unlimited  choice  and 
combination  are  thereby  suggested. 

Thus  a  knowledge  of  structure  not  only  enables  us  to  distinguish  the 
different  woods,  Judge  as  to  their  qualities,  and  explain  the  causes  of 
their  beauty,  but  it  also  becomes  an  invaluable  aid  to  the  thoughtful 
worker,  guiding  him  to  a  more  careful  selection  and  a  more  perfect  use 
of  his  material. 

CLASSES   OF   TREES. 

The  timber  of  the  United  States  is  furnished  by  three  well-defined 
classes  of  trees:  the  needle-leaved,  naked-seeded  conifers  (pine,  cedar, 
etc.),  the  dicotyledonous  (with  two  seed  leaves),  broad-leaved  trees  (oak, 

11 


12  TIMBER. 

poplar,  etc.),  and  to  an  inferior  extent  by  the  monocotyledonous  (with 
one  seed  leaf),  palms,  yuccas,  and  their  allies,  which  last  are  confined 
to  the  most  southern  parts  of  the  country. 

Broad-leaved  trees  are  also  known  as  deciduous  trees,  although 
especially  in  warm  countiies,  many  of  them  are  evergreen,'  while  the 
conifers  are  commonly  termed  "evergreens,"  although  the  larch,  bald 
cypress,  and  others  shed  their  leaves  every  fall,  and  even  the  names 
"broad-leaved''  and  "  coniferous,"  though  perhaps  the  most  satisfac- 
tory, are  not  at  all  exact,  for  the  conifer  ginkgo  has  broad  leaves  and 
bears  no  cones. 

In  the  lumber  trade,  tlie  woods  of  broad-leaved  trees  are  known  as 
"hardwoods,"  though  poplar  is  as  soft  as  pine,  .and  the  coniferous 
woods  are  "  soft  woods,"  notwithstanding  that  yew  ranks  high  in  hard- 
ness even  when  compared  to  "  hardwoods," 

Both  in  the  number  of  diflerent  kinds  of  trees  or  species  and  still 
more  in  the  im])(>rtance  of  their  ])ro(luct  the  conifers  and  broad-leaved 
trees  far  excel  the  palms  and  their  relatives. 

In  the  manner  of  growth  both  conifers  and  broad-leaved  trees  behave 
alike,  adding  each  year  a  new  layer  of  wood  which  covers  the  old  wood 
in  all  i)arts  of  the  stem  and  limbs.  Thus  the  trunk  continues  to  grow 
in  thickness  throughout  the  life  of  the  tree  by  additions  (annual 
rings)  whi(;h  in  temperate  climates  are,  barring  accidents,  accurate 
records  of  the  tree.  With  the  palms  and  their  relatives  the  stem 
remains  generally  of  the  same  diameter,  the  tree  of  a  hundred  years 
being  as  thick  as  it  was  at  ten  years,  the  growth  of  these  being  only  at 
the  top.  Even  where  a  peripheral  increase  takes  i)lace,  as  in  the  yuc- 
cas, the  wood  is  not  laid  on  in  well  defined  layers ;  the  structure  remains 
irregular  throughout. 

Though  alike  in  their  manner  of  growth,  and  therefore  similar  in 
their  general  make-up,  conifers  and  broad-leaved  trees  difter  markedly 
in  the  details  of  their  structure  and  the  character  of  their  wood.  The 
wood  of  all  conifers  is  very  simple  in  its  structure,  the  fibers  compos- 
ing the  main  part  of  the  wood  being  all  alike  and  their  arrangement 
regular.  The  wood  of  broad-leaved  trees  is  complex  in  structure;  it  is 
made  up  of  several  different  kinds  of  cells  and  fibers  and  lacks  the  reg- 
ularity of  arrangement  so  noticeable  in  the  conifers.  This  difference  is 
so  great  that  in  a  study  of  wood  structure  it  is  best  to  consider  the 
two  kinds  separately. 

WOOD   OF   CONIFEROUS   TREES. 

Examining  a  smooth  cross  section  or  end  ftice  of  a  well-grown  log  of 
Georgia  pine  or  Norway  i^ine,  we  distinguish  an  envelope  of  reddish, 
scaly  bark,  a  small  whitish  pith  at  the  center,  and  between  these  the 
wood  in  a  great  number  of  concentric  rings. 

^  In  Ceylon  even  the  cultivated  cherry  has  become  an  evergreen. 


STRUCTURE  AND  APPEARANCE.  13 


BARK   AND    PITH. 

The  bark  of  a  pine  stem  is  thickest  and  roughest  near  the  base, 
decreases  rapidly  in  thickness  from  li  inches  at  the  stump  to  one-tenth 
inch  near  the  toi)  of  the  tree,  and  forms  m  general  about  10  to  15  per 
cent  of  the  entire  trunk. 

The  pith  is  quite  thick,  usually  one-eighth  to  one-fifth  inch  in  Norway 
pine  and  in  the  southern  species,  though  much  less  so  in  white  pine,  and 
is  very  thin,  one-fifteenth  to  one  twenty-fifth  inch  in  cypress,  cedar, 
and  larch. 

In  woods  with  a  thick  pith,  this  latter  is  finest  at  the  stump,  grows 
rapidly  thicker  upward,  and  becomes  thinner  again  in  the  crown  and 
limbs,  the  first  1  to  5  rings  adjoining  it  behaving  similarly. 

SAP   AXD   HEART   WOOD. 

A  zone  of  wood  next  to  the  bark,  1  to  3  or  more  inches  wide,  and 
containing  30  to  50  or  more  annual  rings,  is  of  lighter  color;  this  is  the 
sapwood,  the  inner,  darker  part  of  the  log  being  the  heartwood.  In  the 
former  many  cells  are  active  and  store  up  starch  and  otherwise  assist  in 
the  life  processes  of  the  tree,  although  only  the  last  or  outer  layer  of  cells 
the  cambium,  forms  the  growing  part  and  the  true  life  of  the  tree.  In 
the  heartwood  all  cells  are  lifeless  cases,  and  serve  only  the  mechan- 
ical function  of  keeping  the  tree  from  breaking  under  its  own  great 
weight,  or  from  being  laid  low  by  the  winds. 

The  darker  color  of  the  heartwood  is  due  to  infiltration  of  chemical 
substances  into  the  cell  walls,  but  the  cavities  of  the  cells  in  jjine  are 
not  filled  up,  as  is  sometimes  believed,  nor  do  their  walls  grow  thicker, 
nor  is  their  wall  any  more  lignified  than  in  the  sapwood.  Sapwood 
varies  in  width  and  in  the  number  of  rings  which  it  contains,  even  in 
different  parts  of  the  same  tree;  the  same  year's  growth  which  is  sap- 
wood  in  one  part  of  a  disk  may  be  heartwood  in  another.  Sapwood  is 
widest  in  the  main  part  ot  the  stem  and  varies  often  within  considerable 
limits,  and  without  apparent  regularity.  Generally  it  becomes  narrower 
toward  the  top  and  in  the  limbs,  its  width  varying  with  the  diameter,  and 
being  least,  in  a  given  disk,  on  the  side  which  has  the  shortest  radius, 
Sapwood  of  old  and  stunted  pines  is  composed  of  more  rings  than  that 
of  young  and  thrifty  specimens.  Thus  in  a  pine  250  years  old,  a  layer 
of  wood  or  annual  ring  does  not  change  from  sapwood  to  heartwood 
until  seventy  or  eighty  years  after  it  is  formed,  while  in  a  tree  100  years 
old,  or  less,  it  remains  sapwood  only  from  thirty  to  sixty  years.  The 
width  of  the  sapwood  varies  considerably  for  different  kinds  of  pines; 
it  is  small  for  longleaf  and  white  pine,  and  great  for  loblolly  and  Nor- 
way pines.  Occupying  the  peripheral  part  of  the  trunk  the  proportion 
which  it  forms  of  the  entire  mass  of  the  stem  is  always  great.  Thus 
even  in  old  trees  of  longleaf  pine  the  sapwood  forms  about  40  per 
cent  of  the  merchantable  log,  while  in  the  loblolly  and  in  all  young 
trees  the  bulk  of  the  wood  is  sapwood. 


14  TIMBER. 


THE  ANNUAL  OR  YEAKLY  RING. 

The  concentric,  annual,  or  yearly  rings,  which  appear  on  the  end 
face  of  a  log  are  cross  sections  of  so  many  thin  layers  of  wood. 
Each  such  layer  forms  an  envelope  around  its  inner  neighbor,  and  is 
in  turn  covered  by  the  adjoining  layer  without,  so  that  the  whole  stem 
is  built  uj)  of  a  series  of  thin  hollow  cylinders,  or  rather  cones.  A  new 
layer  of  wood  is  formed  each  season,  covering  the  entire  stem,  as  well 
as  all  the  living  branches.  The  thickness  of  this  layer,  or  the  width 
of  the  yearly  ring,  varies  greatly  in  different  trees  and  also  in  difi'erent 
parts  of  the  same  tree.  In  a  normally  grown,  thritty  pine  log  the  rings 
are  widest  near  the  pith,  growing  more  and  more  narrow  toward  the 
bark.  Thus  the  central  20  rings  in  a  disk  of  an  old  longleaf  pine  may 
each  be  one  eighth  to  one-sixth  inch  (3  to  4  mm.)  wide,  while  the  20 
rings  next  to  the  baric  may  average  only  one  thirtieth  inch  (0.7  mm.). 
In  our  forest  trees  rings  of  one-half  inch  in  width  occur  only  near  the 
center  in  disks  of  very  thrifty  trees  of  both  conifers  and  hard  woods; 
one-twelfth  inch  represents  good  thrifty  growth,  and  the  mininuim  width 
of  about  one  two  hundredths  inch  (0,2  mm.)  is  often  seen  in  stunted 
spruce  and  pine.  The  average  width  of  rings  in  well-grown  old 
white  pine  will  vary  from  one-twelfth  to  one  eighteenth  inch,  while 
in  the  slower  growing  longleaf  pine  it  may  be  one  twenty-fifth  to  one- 
thirtieth  of  an  inch.  The  same  layer  of  wood  is  widest  near  the  stumj) 
in  very  thrifty  young  trees,  especially  if  grown  in  the  open  park,  but 
in  old  forest  trees  the  same  year's  growth  is  wider  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  tree,  being  narrowest  near  the  stump  and  often  also  near  the  very 
tip  of  the  stem.  Generally  the  rings  are  widest  near  the  center,  grow- 
ing narrower  towards  bark.  In  logs  from  stunted  trees  the  order  is 
often  reversed,  the  interior  rings  being  thin  and  the  outer  rings  widest. 
Frequently,  too,  zones  or  bands  of  very  narrow  rings,  representing  unfa- 
vorable periods  of  growth,  disturb  the  general  regularity.  Few  trees, 
even  among  pines,  furnish  a  log  with  truly  circular  cross  section ;  usually 
it  is  an  oval,  and  at  the  stump  commonly  quite  an  irregular  figure. 
Moreover,  even  in  very  regular  or  circular  disks  the  pith  is  rarely  in 
the  center,  and  frequently  one  radius  is  conspicuously  longer  than  its 
opposite,  the  width  of  some  of  the  rings,  if  not  all,  being  greater  on  one 
side  than  on  the  other.  This  is  nearly  always  so  in  the  limbs,  the 
lower  radius  exceeding  the  upper. 

In  extreme  cases,  especially  in  the  limbs,  a  ring  is  frequently  con- 
spicuous on  one  side  and  almost  or  entirely  lost  to  view  on  the  other. 
Where  the  rings  are  extremely  narrow,  the  dark  portion  of  ring  is 
olten  wanting,  the  coh)r  being  cpiite  uniform  and  light.  The  greater 
regularity  or  irregularity  of  the  annual  rings  has  much  to  do  with  the 
technical  (jualities  of  the  timber. 


ANNUAL   RINGS. 


15 


SPMNG  AND  SUMMER  WOOD. 

Examining  the  rings  more  closely,  it  is  noticed  that  each  ring  is  made 
up  of  an  inner,  softer,  light-colored,  and  an  outer,  or  peripheral,  lirmer 
and  darker-colored  portion.  Being  formed  in  the  fore  i)art  of  the  sea- 
son, llie  inner,  light-colored  part  is  termed  spring  wood,  the  outer, 
darker  portion  being  the  summer  wood  of  the  ring.  Since  the  latter  is 
very  heavy  and  firm,  it  determines  to  a  large  extent  the  weight  and 
strength  of  the  wood,  and  as  its  darker  color  infiuences  tlie  shade  of 
color  of  the  entire  piece  of  wood,  this  color  effect  becomes  a  valuable 
aid  in  distinguishing  heavy  and  strong  from  light  and  soft  jjine  wood. 
In  most  hard  i)ines,  like  the  lougleaf,  the  dark  summer  wood  appears 
as  a  distinct  band,  so  that  the 


yearly  ring  is  composed  of  two 
sharply  detined  bands — an  inner, 
the  spring  wood,  and  an  outer, 
the  summer  wood.  But  in  some 
cases,  even  in  hard  pines,  and 
normally  in  the  wood  of  white 
pines,  the  spring  wood  passes 
gradually  into  the  darker  sum- 
mer wood,  so  that  a  sharply  de- 
tined line  occurs  only  where  the 
spring  wood  of  one  ring  abuts 
against  the  summer  wood  of  its 
neighbor.  It  is  this  clearly 
detined  line  which  enables  the 
eye  to  distinguish  even  the  very 
narrow  rings  in  old  pines  and 
spruces.  In  some  cases,  espe- 
cially in  the  trunks  of  Southern 
pines,  and  normally  on  the  lower 
side  of  pine  limbs,  there  occur 
dark  bands  of  wood  in  the  spring  wood  portion  of  the  riug,  giving  rise 
to  false  rings  which  mislead  in  a  superficial  counting  of  rings.  In  the 
disks  cut  from  limbs  these  dark  bands  often  occupy  the  greater  part  of 
the  ring  and  appear  as  '4unes"  or  sickle-shaped  figures.  The  wood 
of  these  dark  bands  is  similar  to  that  of  the  true  summer  wood — the 
cells  have  thick  walls,  but  usually  lack  the  compressed  or  flattened 
form. 

Xormally,  the  summer  wood  forms  a  greater  ]uoi)ortion  of  the  riug 
in  the  part  of  the  tree  formed  during  the  period  of  thriftiest  growth. 
In  an  old  tree  this  proportion  is  very  small  in  the  first  2  to  ~>  rings 
about  the  pith,  and  also  in  the  part  next  to  the  bark,  the  intermediate 
part  showing  a  greater  i)roportion  of  summer  wood.  It  is  also  greatest 
in  a  disk  taken  from  near  the  stump  and  decreases  upward  in  the  stem, 


FlG.y. — Board  of  piue.  Cfi,  «to8s section;  A'.V,  radial 
section:  T/S,  tangential  section  ;  sc,  summer  woo;! ; 
spw,  spring  wood. 


16 


TIMBER. 


thus  fully  accounting  for  the  difference  in  weight  and  firmness  of  the 
wood  of  these  different  parts.  In  the  longleaf  pine  the  summer  wood 
often  forms  scarcely  10  per  cent  of  the  wood  in  the  central  5  rings;  40 
to  50  i)er  cent  of  the  next  100  rings;  about  30  per  cent  in  the  next  50, 
and  only  about  20  per  cen  t  in  the  50  rin^s  next  to  the  bark.  It  averages 
45  per  cent  of  the  wood  of  the  stump  and  only  24  per  cent  of  that  of 
the  top. 

Sawing  the  log  into  boards,  the  yearly  rings  are  represented  on  the 
board  faces  of  the  middle  board  (radial  sections)  by  narrow,  parallel 
stripes  (see  fig.  3),  an  inner,  lighter  stripe,  and  its  outer,  darker  neighbor 
always  corresponding  to  one  annual  ring. 

On  the  faces  of  the  boards  nearest  the  slab  (tangential  or  "  bastard" 
boards)  the  several  years'  growth  should  also  appear  as  parallel,  but 

much    broader   stripes.     This   they  do 
only  if  the  log  is  short  and  very  perfect. 
Usually  a  variety  of  pleasing  patterns 
is  displayed  on  the  boards,  depending 
on  the  position  of  the  saw 
cut,  and   on   the   regularity 
of  growth  of  the  log.    (See 
tig.  3.) 

Where  the  cut  passes 
through  a  prominence  (bump 
or  crook)  of  the  log,  irregu- 
lar, concentric  circlets  and 
ovals  are  produced,  and  on 
almost  all  tangent  boards, 
arrow,  or  V-shaped  forms 
occur. 

ANATOMICAL  STRUCTURE. 


nj4"~ 

-frr;" 



^^^^ 

^;;,^^,„ 

i  '^ 

€^i 

^  E 

H^^ 

vi 

i 

m' 

B 

i 

B 

1 

^ ' 

HP 

fr 

i 

fr 

\ 

w 

cl 

-t^ 

j«  .XlL 

w 

JPiG. 4.— Wood  of  spruce.  1,  natural  size;  2,  small  partof 
ono  ring  masruified  100  times.  The  vertical  tabes  are 
wood  liber-si  in  this  case  all  '•  traclieids."  m,  medullary 
or  pith  ray;  n,  transverse  traclieids  of  pith  ray;  a,  6, 
and  c,  bordered  pita  of  the  tracheids,  more  enlarged 


Holding  a  well-smoothed 
disk,  or  cross  section  one- 
eighth  inch  thick  toward  the 
light,  it  is  readily  seen  that 
pine  wood  is  a  very  porous  structure.  If  viewed  with  a  strong  magni- 
fier, the  little  tubes,  especially  in  the  spring  wood  of  the  rings,  are  easily 
distinguished  and  their  arrangement  in  regular  straight  radial  rows  is 
apparent.  Scattered  through  tlie  summer  wood  portion  of  the  rings, 
numerous  irregular  grayish  dots  (the  resin  ducts)  disturb  the  uniform- 
ity and  regularity  of  the  structure.  Magnified  100  times,  a  piece  of 
spruce,  which  is  similar  to  pine,  presents  a  picture  like  that  shown  in 
fig.  4.  Only  short  pieces  of  the  tubes  or  cells  of  which  the  wood  is 
composed  are  represented  in  the  picture. 

The  total  length  of  these  fibers  is  one-twentieth  to  one-fifth  inch 
being  smallest  near  the  pith,  and  is  50  to  100  times  as  great  as  their 


MINUTE   STRUCTURE. 


17 


width  (fig.  5).    They  are  tapered  and  closed  at  their  ends,  polygonal,  or 


OTOHmrnM 


rounded  and  thin  walled ,  with  large  cavity,  lumen 
or  internal  space  in  the  spring  wood,  thick  walled 
and  flattened  radially  with  the  internal  space  or 
lumen  much  reduced  in  the  summer  wood.  (See 
riglit-hand  portion  of  fig.  4).  This  flattening, 
together  with  the  thicker  walls  of  the  cells  which 
reduces  the  lumen,  causes  the  greater  firmness 
and  darker  color  of  the  summer  wood — there  is 
more  material  in  the  same  volume.  As  shown  in 
the  figure,  the  tubes,  cells,  or  "tracheids"  are 
decorated  on  their  walls  by  circlet-like  struc- 
tures, the  "  bordered  pits,"  sections  of  which  are 
seen  more  magnified  at  «,  b,  and  c,  fig.  4.  These 
pits  are  in  the  nature  of  pores,  covered  by  very 
thin  membranes,  and  serve  as  waterways  between 
the  cells  or  tracheids. 

The  dark  lines  on  the  side  of  the  smaller  piece 
(1,  fig.  4)  ap{)ear  when  magnified  (in  2,  fig.  4)  as 
tiers  of  8  to  10  rows  of  cells,  which  run  radially 
(parallel  to  the  rows  of  tubes  or  tracheids)  and 
are  seen  as  bands  on  the  radial  fa,ce  and  as  rows 
of  pores  on  the  tangential  face.  These  bands  or 
tiers  of  cell  rows  are  the  medullary  rays  or  pith 
rays,  and  are  common  to  all  our  lumber  woods. 
In  the  i)ines  and  other  conifers  they  aie  quite 
small,  but  they  can  readily  be  seen,  even  without 
a  magnifier,  if  a  radial  surface  of  split  wood  (not 
smoothed)  is  examined.  The  entire  radial  face 
will  be  seen  almost  covered  with  these  tiny  struc- 
tures, which  appear  as  fine  but  conspicuous  cross 
lines.  As  shown  in  fig.  4  the  cells  of  the  med- 
ullary or  i)ith  rays  are  smaller  and  very  much 
shorter  than  the  wood  fibers  or  tracheids  and 
their  long  axis  is  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the 
fibers.  In  pines  and  spruces  the  cells  of  the 
upper  and  lower  rows  of  each  tier  or  pith  ray 
have  "bordered"  pits  like  those  of  the  wood 
fibers  or  tracheids  proper,  but  the  cells  of  the 
intermediate  rows,  and  of  all  rows  in  the  rays  of 
cedars,  etc.,  have  only  -'simple"  pits,  i.  e.,  pits 
levoid  of  the  saucer-like  "border"  or  rim. 

In  pine,  many  of  the  pith  rays  are  larger  than 
the  majority,  each  containing  a  whitish  line,  the 
horizontal  resin  duct,  which,  though  much 
smaller,  resembles  the  vertical  ducts  seen  on  the 
cross  section.  The  larger  vertical  resin  ducts  are  best  observed  on 
3521— No.  10 2 


18 


TIMBER. 


removal  of  the  bark  from  a  fresh  piece  of  white  pine,  cut  in  winter,  where 
they  appear  as  conspicuous  white  lines,  extending  often  for  many  inches 

up  and  down  the  stem. 

Neither  the  liorizontal  nor  the  vertical  resin 

ducts  are  vessels  or  cells,  but  are  openings 

ij  s  T  I  j  j  1  11  between  cells,  i.  e.,  intercellular  spaces,  in 
'  ^-S  1  I  i  I'l  ^  M  which  the  resin  accumulates,  freelj^  oozing  out 
,,  ;.  i  fi--'>-  '■ .]  when  the  ducts  of  a  fresli  piece  of  sapwood  are 
cut.  They  are  present  only  in  our  coniferous 
woods,  and  even  here  they  are  restricted  to 
pine,  spruce,  and  larch,  and  are  normally  ab- 
sent in  tir,  cedar,  cy])ress,  and  yew. 

Altogether  the  structure  of  coniferous  wood 
is  very  simple  and  regular,  the  bulk  being  made 
up  of  the  small  fibers  called  tracheids,  the  dis- 
turbing elements  of  pith  rays  and  resin  ducts 
being  insigiiiticant,  and  hence  the  great  uniform- 
ity and  great  technical  value  of  coniferous  wood. 


Fig.  6.— Block  of  oak.  C.  .V., 
cross  section  ;  R.  S..  radial  sec- 
tion ;  T.  S.,  tangential  section ; 
7».  r.,  medullary  or  pith  ray  ;  a, 
heigbt,  6,  width,  and  e,  length 
of  a  pith  ray. 


WOOD  OF  BROAD  LEAVED  TREES. 

On  a  cross  section  of  oak,  the  same  arrangement  of  pith  and  bark, 

of   sapwood   and  heartwood,  ^^  ^. ^,  .^ ^  ^  ^.^^^..^ 

and  the  same  disposition   of     ^<j^^^^^^pl^'^^S?$$^?^^^ 
the  wood  in  well-defined  con-     '^sTirr;r,iTT:T.   n"Ti ;,-  ''-'t.-    \-y  r    y^vr:,^\ 

centric  or  annual  rings  occurs, 
but  the  rings  are  marked  by 
lines,  or  rows,  of  conspicuous 
pores  or  openings  which  oc- 
cupy tlie  greater  part  of  the 
spring  wood  of  each  ring  (see 
tig.  6,  also  tig.  8)  and  are,  in 
fact,  the  hollows  of  vessels 
through  which  the  cut  has 
been  made.  On  the  radial  sec- 
tion, or  quarter-sawed  board, 
the  several  layers  ai)pear  as 
so  many  i)arallel  stripes  (see 
fig.  7);  on  the  tangential 
section  or  "bastard"  face, 
l)atterns  similar  to  those  men- 
tioned for  pine  wood  are  ob- 
served. But  while  the  pat- 
terns in  hard  pine  are  marked 
by  the  darker  summer  wood     '"'    ^  ,   , 

-  1       ♦•       I    •        Jif!-7.— Board  of  oak.     CS,  cross  section ;  /(".S",  radial  sec- 

and     are     composed    OI     I)laill,      tiou:    T.S,  tanucntial  section;   r,  vessels  or  pores,  cut. 
alternating    stripes    of    darker      through;  J^,  sllgUt  curie  in  log  which  appears  in  aec- 

and  lighter  wood,  the  figures    ♦'«n««an-^'''- 

in  oak  (and  other  broad-leaved  woods)  are  due  chiefly  to  the  vessels, 


STRUCTURE    OF    BROAD-LEAVED    WOODS. 


19 


those  of  the  spring  wood  in  oak  being  the  most  conspicuous  (see  fig.  7); 
so  that  in  an  oak  table  the  darker,  shaded  parts  are  the  spring  wood, 
the  lighter,  unicolored  parts  the  summer  wood. 

On  closer  examination  of  the  smoothed  cross  section  of  oak,  the 
spring  wood  part  of  the  ring  is  found  to  be  formed,  in  great  part,  of 
pores:  large,  round,  or  oval  openings  made  by  the  cut  through  long 


Fig.  8  A.— Cross  section  of  oak  magnified  about  5  times. 

vessels.  These  are  separated  by  a  grayish  and  quite  porous  tissue 
(see  fig.  8  A),  which  continues  here  and  there  in  the  form  of  radial,  often 
branched,  patches  (not  the  pith  rays)  into  and  through  the  summer 
wood  to  the  spring  wood  of  the  next  ring.  The  large  vessels  of  the 
spring  wood,  occupying  C  to  10  per  cent  of  the  volnme  of  a  log  in  very 
good  oak,  and  25  per  cent  or  more  in 
inferior  and  narrow-ringed  lumber,  are  a 
very  important  feature,  since  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  greater  their  share  in  the 
volume,  the  lighter  and  weaker  the  wood. 
They  are  smallest  near  the  pith,  and  grow 
wider  outward;  they  are  wider  in  the 
stem  than  limb  and  seem  to  be  of  indefi- 
nite length,  forming  open  channels  in 
some  cases  probably  as  long  as  the  tree 
itself. 

Scattered  through  the  radiating  gray 
patches  of  porous  wood  are  vessels  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  spring  wood,  but 
decidedly  smaller.  These  vessels  are  fig.  s  b. 
usually  fewer  and  larger  near  the  spring 
wood,  and  smaller  and  more  numerous 
in  the  outer  portions  of  the  ring.  Their  number  and  size  can  be  util- 
ized to  distinguish  the  oaks  classed  as  white  oaks  from  those  classed  as 
black  and  red  oaks;  they  are  fewer  and  larger  in  red  oaks,  smaller  but 
much  more  numerous  in  white  oaks.  The  snmmei-  wood,  except  for 
these  radial  grayish  patches,  is  dark  colored  and  firm.  This  firm  por- 
tion, divided  into  bodies  or  strands  by  these  patches  of  porous  wood 


Portion  of  the  firm  bodies  of 
libers  with  two  cells  of  a  small  pith 
rav  ""••    nighlv  magnified. 


20 


TIMBER. 


and  also  by  fine  wavy  concentric  lines  of  short,  thin-walled  cells  (see 
fig.  8  A),  consists  of  thick-walled  fibers  (see  dg.  8  B)  and  is  the  chief 
element  of  strength  in  oak  wood.  In  good  white  oak  it  forms  one-half 
and  more  of  the  wood;  it  cuts  like  horn,  and  the  cut  surface  is  shiny 
and  of  a  deep  chocolate  brown  color.  In  very  narrow-ringed  wood 
and  in  inferior  red  oak  it  is  usually  much  reduced  in  quantity  as 
well  as  quality. 

The  pith  rays  of  the  oak,  unlike  those  of  coniferous  woods,  are 
at  least  in  part  very  large  and  conspicuous  (see  fig.  6,  their  height 
indicated  by  the  letter  a,  and  their  width  by  the  letter  h).    The 
large  medullary  vays  of  oak  are  often  twenty  and  more  cells  wide 
and  several  hundred  cell  rows  in  height,  wliich  amount  com- 
monly to  one  or  more  inches.     These 
large  rays  are  consi)icuous  on  all  sec- 
tions.   They  appear  as  long,  sharp, 
grayish  lines  on  the  cross  section,  as 
short,  thick  lines,  tapering  at  each 
end,  on  the  tangential  or  "bastard" 
face,  and  as  broad,  shiny  bands,  the 
^'mirrors,"  on  the  radial  section.     In 
addition  to  these  coarse  rays,  there  is 
also   a  large  number  of  small  pith 
rays,  which  can  be  seen  only  when 
magnitied.     On  the  whole,  the  pith 
rays  form  a  much  larger  part  of  the 
wood  than  might  be  supposed.     In 
specimens  of  good  white  oak  it  has 
been  lound  that  they  formed  about 
16  to  25  per  cent  of  the  wood. 

>IINUTK   STRUCTUKK. 

If  a  well-smoothed,  thin  disk,  or 
cross  section  of  oak  (say  one-sixteenth 
inch  thick)  is  held  up  to  the  light,  it 
looks  very  much  like  a  sieve,  the 
pores  or  vessels  appearing  as  clean- 
cut  holes;  the  spring  wood  and  gray 
patches  are  seen  to  be  (juite  i)or- 
ous,  but  the  firm  bodies  of  fibers 
between  them  are  dense  and  opaque. 
Examined  with  the  magnifier  it 
will  be  noticed  that  there  is  no  such  regularity  of  arrangement  in 
straight  rows  as  is  conspicuous  in  the  pine;  on  the  contrary,  great 
irregulaiity  pi-evails.  At  the  same  time,  while  the  pores  are  as  large 
as  \)m  holes,  the  cells  of  the  denser  wood,  unlike  those  of  pine  wood, 


Flu.  9.— Isolated  libers  and  cells,  a,  lour  cells 
of  wood  parencbyma;  b,  two  cells  from  a 
pith  ray;  c,  a  single, joint  or  cell  of  a  vessel, 
t!ic  openings  x  leading  into  its  upper  and 
lower  neighbors;  d,  tracheid;  e,  wood  fiber 
proper. 


GRAIN   OF   WOOD.  21 

are  too  small  to  be  distinguished.  Studied  with  the  microscope, 
each  vessel  is  found  to  be  a  vertical  row  of  a  great  number  of  short, 
wide  tubes,  joined  end  to  end  (tig.  9,  c).  The  porous  spring  wood  and 
radial  gray  tracts  are  partly  composed  of  smaller  vessels,  but  chiefly 
of  tracheids  like  those  of  pine,  and  of  shorter  cells,  the  '-wood  paren- 
chyma," resembling  the  cells  of  the  medullary  rays.  These  latter,  as 
well  as  the  fine  concentric  lines  mentioned  as  occurring  in  the  summer 
wood,  are  composed  entirely  of  short,  tube-like  parenchyma  cells  with 
square  or  oblique  ends  (fig.  9,  a  and  h).  The  wood  fibers  proper,  which 
form  the  dark,  firm  bodies  referred  to,  are  very  tine,  threadlike  cells 
one  twenty  fifth  to  one-tenth  inch  long,  with  a  wall  commonly  so  thick 
that  scarcely  any  empty  internal  space  or  lumen  remains  (tigs.  9,  e, 
and  8,  B). 

If  instead  of  oak  a  piece  of  poplar  or  basswood  (fig.  10)  had  been 
used  in  this  study,  the  structure  would  have  been  found  to  be  quite 
different.     The  same  kinds  of  cell-elements,  vessels,  etc.,  are,  to  be 


Fig.  10.— Cross  section  of  basswood  (maguified).    v,  vessels;  mr,  pith  rays. 


sure,  present,  but  their  combination  and  arrangement  is  different,  and 
thus  from  the  great  variety  of  possible  combinations  results  the  great 
variety  of  structure  and,  in  consequence,  of  the  qualities  which  distin- 
guish ttie  wood  of  broad-leaved  trees.  The  sharp  distinction  of  sap- 
wood  and  heartwood  is  wanting;  the  rings  are  not  so  clearly  defined, 
the  vessels  of  the  wood  are  small,  very  numerous,  and  rather  evenly 
scattered  through  the  wood  of  the  annual  ring,  so  that  the  distinction 
of  the  ring  almost  vanishes  and  the  medullary  or  pith  rays,  in  poplar, 
can  be  seen,  without  being  magnified,  only  on  the  radial  section. 

DIFFERENT   GRAIN   OF   WOOD. 

The  terms  "fine  grained,"  "coarse  grained,''  "straight  grained" 
and  "cross  grained"  are  frequently  applied  in  woodworking.  In  com- 
mon usage,  wood  is  "coarse  grained"  if  its  annual  rings  are  wide, 
"fine  grained"  if  they  are  narrow;  in  the  finer  wood  industries  a  "fine- 
grained" wood  is  capable  of  high  polish  while  a  "coarse-grained"  wood 


22 


TIMBER. 


is  not,  so  that  in  this  latter  case  the  distinption  depends  chiefly  on  hard- 
ness, and  ill  the  Ibinier  on  an  accidental  case  of  slow  or  rapid  growth. 
Generally  the  direction  of  the  wood  fibers  is  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  stem  or  liiul)  in  which  they  occur,  the  wood  is  straight  grained,  but 


Fig.     11.— Spinil   grain.         Kio.  12. — Alternating  spiral  tjraiu  iu  cypress.     Side 
Season  checks,  after  rt--  and  end  view  of  same  piece.    Wlien  the  bark  was 

luoval  of  hark,  indicate  at  o  the  grain  at  thi.s  point  was  straight.     From 

thetlirectionof  theflber.s  that  time  each  year  it  grew  more  oblique  in  one 

or  grain.  direction,  reaching  a  climax  at «,  and  then  turned 

hack  in  the  opposite  direction.  These  alterna- 
tions were  repeated  periodically,  the  hark  sliaring 
in  these  chauge.s. 

in  many  cases  the  course  of  the  fibers  is  spiral  or  twisted  around  the 
tree  as  shown  in  fig.  11,  and  sometimes  (commonly  in  butts  of  gum 
and  cypress)  the  fibers  of  several  layers  are  oblique  in  one  direction, 
and  those  of  the  next  series  of  layers  are  oblique  in  the  opposite 

direction,  as  shown  in  fig.  12;  the  wood  is 
cross  or  twisted  grained.  Wavy  grain  in  a 
tangential  ])lain  as  seen  on  the  radial  section 
is  illustrated  in  fig'.  13,  which  represents  an 
extreme  case  observed  in  beech.  This  same 
form  also  occurs  on  the  radial  plain,  causing' 
the  tangential  section  to  appear  wavy  or  in 
transverse  folds.  When  wavy  grain  is  tine, 
i.  e.,  the  folds  or  ridges  small  but  numerous, 
it  gives  rise  to  the  "curly"  structure  fre- 
quently seen  in  maple.  Ordinarily,  neither 
wavy,  spiral,  nor  alternate  grain  is  visible 
on  the  cross  section;  its  existence  often  escapes  the  eye  even  on  smooth, 
longitudinal  faces  in  sawed  material,  so  that  the  only  safe  guide  to 
their  discover}'  lies  in  splitting-  the  M't^od  in  the  two  normal  plains. 

Generally  the  surface  of  the  wood  under  the  bark,  and  therefore  also 
that  of  any  layer  in  the  interior,  is  not  uniform  and  smooth,  but  is 


Fig.    13.— Wavy    grain    in    heech 
after  Niirdlinger. 


CURLY"    AND    "lURDS-EYF/     GRAIN. 


23 


channeled  and  pitted  by  numerous  de])ressions  wliicli  differ  greatly  in 
size  and  form.  Usually,  any  one  depression  or  elevation  is  restricted 
to  one  or  few  annual  layers  (i.  e.,  seen  only  in  one  or  few  rings)  and  is 
then  lost,  being  compensated  (tlie  surface  at  the  particular  spot  evened 
up)  by  growth.  In  some  woods,  however,  any  deinession  or  elevation 
once  attained  grows  from  year  to  year  and  reaches  a  maximum 
size  which  is  maintained  for  uiany  years,  sometimes  throughout  life. 

In  maple,  where  this  tendency  to  preserve 
any  particular  contour  is  very  great,  the 
depressions  and  elevations  are  usnally  small 
(connnonly  less  than  one-eighth  inch),  but 
very  numerous.  On  tangent  boards  of  such 
wood  the  sections  of  these  i)its  and  promi- 
nences appear  as  circlets  and  give  rise  to  the 
beautiful  "bird's-eye"  or  "landscape"  struc- 
ture. Similar  structures  in  the  burls  of 
black  ash,  maple,  etc.,  are  frequently  due  to 
the  presence  of  dormant  buds,  which  cause 
the  surface  of  all  the  layers  through  which 
they  pass  to  be  covered  by  small  conical 
elevations,  whose  cross  sections  on  the  sawed 
board  appear  as  irregular  circlets  or  islets 
each  with  a  dark  speck,  the  section  of  the  pith 
or  "trace"  of  the  dormant  bud  in  the  center. 

In  the  wood  of  many  broad  leaved  trees 
the  wood  fibers  are  much  longer  when  full 
grown  than  when  they  are  first  formed  in  the 
cambium  or  growing  zone.  This  causes  the 
tips  of  each  fiber  to  crowd  in  between  the 
.  fibers  above  and  below,  and  leads  to  an 
irregular  interlacement  of  these  fibers, 
which  adds  to  the  toughness  but  reduces  the 
deavability  of  the  wood. 

At  the  junction  of  limb  and  stem  the  fibers 
on  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the  limb 
behave  differently.  On  the  lower  side  they 
run  from  the  stem  into  the  lind),  forming  an 
uninterrupted  strand  or  tissue  and  a  perfect 
union.  On  the  upper  side  the  fibers  bend  aside,  are  not  continuous 
into  the  limb,  and  hence  the  connection  is  imperfect  (fig.  14). 

Owing  to  this  arrangement  of  the  fibers,  the  cleft  made  in  splitting 
never  runs  into  the  knot,  if  started  on  the  side  above  the  limb,  but  is 
apt  to  enter  tlie  knot  if  started  below,  a  fact  well  understood  in  wood 
craft.  When  limbs  die,  decay,  and  brea.'v  off",  the  remaining  stubs  are 
surrounded  and  may  finally  be  covered  by  the  growth  of  the  trunk,  and 
thus  give  rise  to  the  annoying  '.'dead"  or  "loose"  knots. 


Fig.  14.— Section  of  wood  .showing 
position  of  the  grain  at  liase  of  a 
limb.  1\  pith  of  both  stem  and 
limb:  1-7,  .seven  yearly  layers  of 
wood ;  a,  h,  knot  or  ba.sal  part  of 
a  limb  which  lived  four  years, 
then  died  and  broke  off  near  the 
stem,  leaving  the  part  to  the  left 
of  a,  h,  a  "sound"  knot,  the  part 
to  the  right  a  "dead"  knot, 
which  would  soon  be  entirely 
covered  by  the  growing  .stem. 


24  TIMBER. 

COLOR  AND  ODOR. 

Color,  like  structure,  lends  beauty  to  the  wood,  aids  in  its  identifica- 
tion, and  is  of  great  value  in  the  determination  of  its  quality.  Con- 
sidering only  the  heartwood,  the  black  color  of  the  persimmon,  the 
dark  brown  of  the  walnut,  the  light  brown  of  the  white  oaks,  the  red- 
dish brown  of  the  red  oaks,  the  yellowish  white  of  the  tulip  and  poplar, 
the  brownish  red  of  the  redwood  and  cedar,  the  yellow  of  the  papaw 
and  sumac,  are  all  reliable  marks  of  distinction;  and  color  together 
with  luster  and  weight  are  only  too  often  the  only  features  depended 
upon  in  practice.  Newly  formed  wood,  like  that  of  the  outer  few  rings, 
has  but  little  color.  The  sapwood  generally  is  light,  and  the  wood  of 
trees  which  form  no  heartwood  changes  but  little,  except  when  stained 
by  forerunners  of  disease. 

The  different  tints  of  colors,  whether  the  brown  of  oak,  the  orange 
brown  of  pine,  the  blackish  tint  of  walnut,  or  the  reddish  cast  of  cedar, 
are  due  to  pigments,  while  the  deeper  shade  of  the  summer-wood  bands 
in  pine  and  cedar,  or  in  oak  or  walnut,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  wood 
being  denser,  more  of  the  colored  wood  substance  occurs  on  a  given 
space,  i.  e.,  there  is  more  colored  matter  per  square  inch. 

Wood  is  translucent,  a  thin  disk  of  pine  permitting  light  to  pass 
through  quite  freely.  This  transluceucy  affects  the  luster  and  bright- 
ness of  lumber.  When  wood  is  attacked  by  fungi  it  becomes  more 
opaque,  loses  its  brigiitness,  and  in  practice  is  designated  "  dead  "  in 
distinction  to  "live"  or  bright  timber.  Exposure  to  air  darkens  all 
wood;  direct  sunlight  and  occasional  moistening  hasten  this  change 
and  cause  it  to  penetrate  deeper.  Prolonged  immersion  has  the  same 
effect,  i)ine  wood  beco:ning  a  dark  gray  while  oak  changes  to  a  blackish 
brown. 

Odor,  like  color,  depends  on  chemical  compounds,  forming  no  part  of 
the  wood  substance  itself.  Exposure  to  weather  reduces,  and  often 
changes  the  odor,  but  a  piece  of  dry  longleaf  pine,  cedar,  or  camphor 
wood  exhales  apparently  as  much  odor  as  ever,  when  a  new  surface  is 
exposed. 

Deartwood  is  more  odoriferous  than  sapwood.  Many  kinds  of  wood 
are  distinguished  by  strong  and  peculiar  odors.  This  is  esi)e('ially  the 
case  with  camphor,  cedar,  pine,  oak,  and  mahogany,  and  the  list  would 
comprise  every  kind  of  wood  in  use,  were  our  sense  of  smell  developed 
in  keeping  with  its  importance.  Decomposition  is  usually  accompanied 
by  pronounced  odors;  decaying  poplar  emits  a  disagreeable  odor, 
while  red  oak  often  becomes  fragrant,  its  smell  resembling  that  of 
heliotrope. 

RESONANCE. 

If  a  log  or  scantling  is  struck  with  the  ax  or  hammer,  a  sound  is 
emitted  which  varies  in  i)itch  and  character  with  the  shai)e  and  size  of 
the  stick,  and  also  with  the  kind  and  condition  of  wood.     Not  only  can 


RESONANCE.  25 

sound  be  produced  by  a  direct  blow,  but  a  thin  board  may  be  set  vibra- 
ting and  be  made  to  give  a  tone  by  merely  producing  a  suitable  tone 
in  its  vicinity.  The  vibrations  of  the  air,  caused  by  the  motion  of  the 
strings  of  the  piano,  communicate  themselves  to  the  board,  which 
vibrates  in  the  same  intervals  as  the  string  and  reeuforces  the  note. 
The  note  which  a  given  piece  of  wood  may  emit  varies  in  pitch  directly 
with  the  elasticity,  and  indirectly  with  the  weight,  of  tlie  wood.  The 
ability  of  a  properly  shaped  sounding  board  to  respond  freely  to  all 
the  notes  within  the  range  of  an  instrument,  as  well  as  to  reflect  the 
character  of  the  notes  thus  emitted  (i.  e.,  whether  melodious  or  not), 
depends,  tirst,  on  the  structure  of  the  wood  and  next  on  the  uniformity 
of  the  same  throughout  the  board.  In  the  manufacture  of  musical 
instruments  all  wood  containing  defects,  knots,  cross  grain,  resinous 
tracts,  alternations  of  wide  and  narrow  rings,  and  all  wood  in  which 
summer  and  spring  wood  are  strongly  contrasted  in  structure  and  vari- 
able in  their  proportions,  is  rejected,  and  only  radial  sections  (quarter 
sawed,  or  split)  of  wood  of  uniform  structure  and  growth  are  used. 

The  irregularity  in  structure,  due  to  the  presence  of  relatively  large 
pores  and  pith  rays,  excludes  almost  all  our  broad-leaved  woods  from 
such  use,  M'hde  the  number  of  eligible  woods  among  conifers  is  limited 
by  the  necessity  of  combining  sufticient  strength  with  uniformity  in 
structure,  absence  of  too  pronounced  bands  of  summer 
wood,  and  relative  freedom  from  resin. 

Spruce  is  the  favored  resonance  wood;  it  is  used  for 
sounding  boards  both  in  pianos  and  violins,  while  for  the 
resistant  back  and  sides  of  the  latter,  the  highly  elastic 
hard  maple  is  used.  Preferably  resonance  wood  is  not  ^,0  i5._cro98 
bent  to  assume  the  final  form;  the  belly  of  the  violin  is  section  of  a 
shaped  from  a  thicker  piece,  so  that  every  fiber  is  in  the  ^{^^^1° 
original  as  nearly  unstrained  condition  as  possible,  and 
therefore  free  to  vibrate.  All  wood  for  musical  instruments  is,  of  course, 
well  seasoned,  the  final  drying  in  kiln  or  warm  room  being  preceded  by 
careful  seasoning  at  ordinary  temperatures  often  for  as  many  as  seven 
years  or  more.  The  improvement  of  violins,  not  by  age  but  by  long 
usage,  is  probably  due,  not  only  to  the  adjustment  of  the  numerous  com- 
ponent parts  to  each  other,  but  also  to  a  change  in  the  wood  itself;  years 
of  vibrating  enabling  any  given  part  to  vibrate  much  more  readily. 

II.— WEIGHT    OF    WOOD. 

A  small  cross  section  of  wood,  as  in  fig.  15,  dropped  into  water,  sinks, 
showing  that  the  substance  of  which  wood  fiber  or  wood  is  built  up  is 
heavier  than  water.  By  immersing  the  wood  successively  in  heavier 
licjuids,  until  we  tind  a  liquid  in  which  it  does  not  siiik,  and  compar- 
ing the  weight  of  the  same  with  water,  we  find  that  wood  substance  is 
about  l.G  times  as  heavy  as  wat^r,  and  that  this  is  as  true  of  poplar  as 
of  oak  or  pine. 


26 


TIMBER. 


Separating  a  single  cell,  as  shown  in  fig.  IG,  a,  drying  and  then  drop- 
ping it  into  water,  it  tloats.  The  air-lilled  ceil  cavity  or  interior  reduces 
its  weight,  and,  like  a  corked  empty  bottle,  it  weighs  less  than  the  water- 
Soon,  however,  water  soaks  into  the  (;ell,  when  it  tills  up  and  sinks. 

31any  such  cells  grown  togethe)-,  as  in  a  block  of  wood,  sink  when 
all  or  most  of  them  are  filled  with  water,  but  will  float  as  long  as  the 
majority  are  empty  or  only  partly  tilled.  This  is  why  a  green,  sappy 
pine  pole  soon  sinks  in  '' driving"  (floating).  Its  cells  are  largely  tilled 
before  it  is  thrown  in,  and  but  little  additional  water  suffices  to  make 
its  weight  greater  than  that  of  the  water. 

In  a  good-sized  white  pine  log,  composed  chiefly  of  empty  cells  (heart- 
wood),  the  water  requires  a  very  long  time  to  fill  up  the  cells  (five  years 
would  not  suffice  to  till  them  all),  and  therefore  the  log  may  float  for 
many  months.  When  the  wall  of  the  wood  tiber  is  very  thick  (tive- 
eighths  or  more  of  the  volume),  as  in  tig.  1(>,  &,  the  tiber  siidvS  whether 
empty  or  tilled.  This  applies  to  most  of  the  tibers  of  the  dark  summer- 
wood  bands  in  pines,  and  to  the  compact  fibers  of  oak  or 
hickory,  and  many,  especially  tropical  woods,  have  such 
thick-walled  cells  and  so  little  empty  or  air  space  that  they 
never  float. 

Here^  then,  are  the  two  main  factors  of  weight  in  wood: 
The  amount  of  cell  wall,  or  wood  substance,  constant  for  any 
given  piece,  and  the  amount  of  water  contained  in  the 
wood,  variable  even  in  the  standing  tree,  and  only  in  part 
eliminated  in  drying. 

The  weight  of  the  green  wood  of  any  species  varies  chiefly 
as  the  second  factor,  and  is  entirely  misleading  if  the  rela- 
tive weight  of  different  kinds  is  sought.  Thus  some  green 
sticks  of  the  otherwise  lighter  cypress  and  gum  sink  more 
readily  than  fresh  oak. 

The  weight  of  sa])wood,  or  the  sappy  peripheral  part  of 
our  common  lumber  woods,  is  always  great,  whether  cut 
in  winter  or  summer.  It  rarely  falls  much  below  45  pounds 
and  commonly  exceeds  55  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot,  even  in  our  lighter 
wooded  si)ecies. 

It  follows  that  the  green  wood  of  a  sapling  is  heavier  than  that  of  an 
old  tree,  the  fresh  wood  from  a  disk  of  the  u])per  part  of  a  tree  often 
heavier  than  that  of  the  lower  part,  and  the  wood  near  the  bark  heavier 
than  that  nearer  the  pith,  and  also  that  the  advantage  of  drying  the 
wood  before  shipping  is  most  important  in  sappy  and  light  kinds. 

Wlien  kiln  dried,  the  misleading  moisture  factor  of  weight  is  uni- 
formly reduced  and  a  fair  comparison  possible.  For  the  sake  of  con- 
venience in  comi>arison  the  weight  of  wood  is  expressed  either  as  the 
weight  i)er  cubic  foot,  or,  what  is  still  more  convenient,  as  specific  weight 
or  density.  If  an  old  longleaf  i)ine  is  cut  up  as  shown  in  tig.  17,  the 
wood  of  disk  No.  1  is  heavier  than  that  of  disk  No.  li,  the  latter  heavier 


3 

■1  so- 


FiG.     10. 
lated  fibers 


WEIGHT    OF    DIFFERENT    PARTS.  27 

tlian  that  ot"  disk  No.  •>,  aud  the  wood  of  the  top  disk  is  found  to  be 
only  about  three-fourths  as  heavy  as  tliat  of  disk  No.  1. 

Similarly,  if  disk  No.  li  is  cut  \\\^  as  in  the  figure,  the  specitic  weight 

of  tne  different  pieces  is: 

a  about  0.52 

6  about  0.64 

c  about  0.67 

d,  c,f  about  0.65 

showing  that  in  this  disk,  at  least,  the  wood  formed  during  tlie  many 
years'  growth,  represented  in  piece  «,  is  much  lighter  than  that  of 
former  years.  It  also  shows  that  the  best  wood  is  the  middle  part, 
with  its  large  proportion  of  dark  summerwood  bands. 

Cutting  up  all  disks  iu  the  same  way,  it  will  be  found  that  the  ])iece 
a  of  the  first  disk  is  heavier  thau  piece  a  of  the  fifth,  and  that  piece  c 
of  the  first  disk  excels  the  piece  c  of  all  the  other  disks.  This  shows 
that  the  wood  grown  during  the  same  number  of  years  is  lighter  in  the 
upper  parts  of  the  stem;  and  if  the  disks  are  smoothed  on  their  radial 
surfaces  and  set  up  one  on  top  of  the  other  in  their  regular  order  for 
sake  of  comparison,  this  decrease  in  weight  will  be  seen  to  be  accom- 
panied by  a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  summer 
wood.  The  color  effect  of  the  upper  disks  is 
conspicuously  lighter. 

If  our  old  pine  had  been  cut  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago,  before  the  outer,  lighter  wood 
was  laid  on,  it  is  evident  that  the  weight  of  the 
wood  of  any  one  disk  would  have  been  found  to 
increase  from  the  center  outward,  and  no  subse- 
quent decrease  could  have  been  observed. 

In  a  thrifty  young  pine,  then,  the  wood  is 
heavier  from  the  center  outward,  and  lighter 

.  samiiles. 

from  below  upward ;  only  the  wood  laid  on  m 

old  age  falls  iu  weight  below  the  average.     The  number  of  brownish 

bands  of  summer  wood  are  a  direct  indication  of  these  differences. 

If  an  old  oak  is  cut  up  in  the  same  manner,  the  butt  cut  is  also 
found  heaviest  and  the  top  lightest,  but,  unlike  the  disk  of  pine,  the 
disk  of  oak  has  its  firmest  wood  at  the  center  and  each  successive  piece 
from  the  center  outward  is  lighter  than  its  inner  neighbor. 

Examining  the  pieces,  this  difference  is  not  as  readily  explained  by 
the  appearance  of  each  piece  as  in  the  case  of  pine  wood.  Neverthe- 
less, one  conspicuous  point  appears  at  once,  the  pores,  so  very  distinct 
in  oak,  are  very  minute  iu  the  wood  near  the  center  and  thus  the  wood 
is  far  less  porous.  Studying  different  trees  it  is  found  that,  in  the  ])ines, 
wood  with  narrow  rings  is  just  as  heavy  as,  and  often  heavier  thau 
the  wood  with  wider  rings,  but  if  the  rings  are  unusually  narrow  in 
any  part  of  the  disk  the  wood  has  a  lighter  color;  that  is,  there  is  less 
summer  wood  and  tlierefore  less  weight. 

In  oak,  ash,  or  elm  trees  of  thrifty  growth,  the  rings  fairly  wide  (not 
less  than  one-twelfth  inch),  always  form  the  heaviest  wood,  while  any 


ditcJ 


Fig.   17. — Orientation  of   wooil 


28 


TIMBER. 


piece  with  very  narrow  rings  is  light.  On  the  other  hand,  the  weight 
of  a  piece  of  hard  maple  or  birch  is  quite  independent  of  the  width  of 
its  rings. 

The  bases  of  limbs  (knots)  are  usually  heavy,  very  heavy  in  conifers, 
and  also  tlu'  wood  which  surrounds  them,  but  generally  the  wood  of  the 
limbs  is  lighter  than  that  of  the  stem,  and  the  wood  of  the  roots  is  the 
lightest. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  none  of  the  native  woods  in  common 
use  in  this  country  are,  when  dry,  as  heavy  as  water,  i.  e.,  02  pounds  to 
the  cubic  foot.  Few  exceed  50  pounds,  while  most  of  them  fall  below  40 
pounds,  and  much  of  the  pine  and  other  coniferous  wood  weighs  less 
than  30  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

The  weight  of  the  wood  is,  in  itself,  nn  important  quality.  Weight 
assists  in  distinguishing  maple  from  poplar.  Lightness,  coupled  with 
great  strength  and  stiffness,  recommends  wood  for  a  thousand  diflferent 
uses.  To  a  large  extent  weight  predicates  the  strength  of  the  wood, 
at  least  in  the  same  species,  so  that  a  heavy  piece  of  oak  will  exceed  in 
strength  a  light  piece  of  the  same  species,  and  in  pine  it  appears  prob- 
able tliat,  weight  for  weight,  the  strength  of  the  wood  of  various  pines 
is  nearly  equal. 

Weight  of  kiln-dried  ivood  of  different  species. 


Approximate. 

, 

Specific 
weight. 

Weight  of— 

1  cubic 
foot. 

1,000  feet 
of  lum- 
ber. 

(a)  Very  Iiravy  woods : 

Hickory,  o'ali,  persimmon,  osage  orange,  black  locust,  hackberry. 

0.  70-0. 80 
. 60-  .  70 

. 50-  .  60 

. 40-  .  50 
. 30-  .  40 

rounds. 

42-48 

36-42 

30-36 

24-30 
18-24 

Pounds. 
3,700 

(6)   Heavy  woods : 

Asli,  elm.  (dierry.  bircli,  maple,  beech,  walnut,  sour  gum,  coflee 

tree,  lioucy  locust,  best  of  Soutliern  piue,  and  tamarack 

(c)  Wood.s  of  medium  weight: 

Southern  pine,  i)itch  i)ine,  tamarack,  Dougla.s  spruce,  western 
liemlock.  swcci     gum,   .soft   ma])b',  .sycamore,  sassafras,  mul- 

3.200 
2,700 
2,200 

(d)  Liglit  wood.s : 

Norway  and  bull  j)ine,  red  cedar,  cypre.ss.  liemlock,  tlie  heavier 
spruce  and  tir,  redwood,  basswood,  clu;stnut,  butternut,  tulip, 

(e)  Very  liglit  woods: 

1,800 

For  acientific  names  see  list,  p.  72. 

Since  ordinary  lumber  contains  knots  and  also  more  water  than  is 
here  assumetl,  and  also  since  its  dimensions  either  exceed  or  fall  short 
of  perfect  measurement,  the  figures  in  the  table  are  only  approximate. 

Thus^  1,000  feet,  B.  M.,  of  longleaf  pine  weighs: 

Pounds. 

Rough  and  greeu 4,  500 

Boards,  rough  but  seasoued 3,  500 

Boards,  dressed  and  seasoned 3,  000 

Flooring,  matched,  dressed  and  seasoned 2,  500 

Weatherboardiug  beveled  aud  dressed 1,  500 


WHERE  AND  WHAT  IS  SAP?  29 

III— MOISTURE  IN  WOOD. 

Water  may  occur  in  wood  in  three  conditions:  (1)  It  forms  the 
greater  part  (over  00  per  cent)  of  the  protoplasmic  contents  of  the 
living  cells;  (2)  it  saturates  the  walls  of.  all  cells,  and  (.3)  it  entirely  or 
at  least  partly  tills  the  cavities  of  the  lifeless  cells,  libers,  and  vessels. 
In  the  sapwood  of  pine  it  occurs  in  all  three  forms;  in  the  heartwood 
only  in  the  second  form,  it  merely  saturates  the  walls.  Of  100  pounds 
of  water  associated  with  100  pounds  of  dry  wood  substance  in  200 
pounds  of  fresh  sapwood  of  white  pine,  about  35  pounds  are  needed  to 
saturate  the  cell  walls,  less  than  5  pounds  are  contained  in  living  cells, 
and  the  remaining  GO  pounds  partly  fill  the  cavities  of  the  wood  fibers. 
This  latter  forms  the  sap  as  ordinarily  understood.  It  is  water  brought 
from  the  soil,  containing  small  quantities  of  mineral  salts,  and  in  cer- 
tain species  (maple,  birch,  etc.)  it  also  contains  at  certain  times  a  small 
percentage  of  sugar  and  other  organic  matter.  These  organic  sub- 
stances are  the  dissolved  reserve  food,  stored  during  winter  in  the  pith 
rays,  etc.,  of  the  wood  and  bark ;  generally  but  a  mere  trace  of  them  is 
to  be  found.  From  this  it  appears  that  the  solids  contained  in  the  sap, 
such  as  albumen,  gum,  sugar,  etc.,  can  not  exercise  the  influence  on 
the  strength  of  the  wood  which  is  so  commonly  claimed  for  them. 

The  wood  next  to  the  bark  contains  the  most  water.  In  the  s])ecies 
which  do  not  form  heartwood  the  decrease  toward  the  pith  is  gradual, 
but  where  this  is  formed,  the  change  from  a  more  moist  to  a  drier  con- 
dition is  usually  quite  abrupt  at  the  sapwood  limit.  In  longlea.  pine, 
the  wood  of  the  outer  1  inch  of  a  disk  may  contain  50  per  cent  of  water, 
that  of  the  next,  or  second  inch,  only  35  per  cent,  and  that  of  the  heart- 
wood  only  20  per  cent.  In  such  a  tree  the  amount  of  water  in  any  one 
section  varies  with  the  amount  of  sapwood,  and  is  therefore  greater 
for  the  upper  than  the  lower  cuts,  greater  for  limbs  than  stems,  and 
greatest  of  all  in  the  roots. 

Ditt'erent  trees,  even  of  the  same  kind  and  from  the  same  place,  differ  as 
to  the  amount  of  water  they  contain.  A  thrifty  tree  contains  more  water 
than  a  stunted  one,  and  a  young  tree  more  than  an  old  one,  while  the  wood 
of  all  trees  varies  in  its  moisture  relations  wiih  the  season  of  the  year. 

Contrary  to  the  general  belief  a  tree  contains  about  as  much  water 
in  winter  as  in  summer.  The  fact  that  the  bark  peels  easily  in  the 
spring  depends  on  the  presence  of  incomplete,  soft  tissue  found  between 
wood  and  bark  during  this  season  and  has  little  to  do  with  the  total 
amount  of  water  contained  in  the  wood  of  the  stem. 

Even  in  the  living  tree  a  flow  of  sap  from  a  cut  occurs  only  in  cer- 
tain kinds  of  trees  and  under  special  circumstances;  from  boards,  tim- 
ber, etc.,  the  water  does  not  flow  out,  as  is  sometimes  believed,  but  must 
be  evaporated.' 

'The  seeming  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  mostly  referable  to  two  causes,  namely: 
(a)  Clefts  or  "shakes"  will  allow  water  contained  in  them  to  How  ont.  (b)  From 
sound  wood,  if  very  sappy,  water  is  forced  out  whenever  the  wood  ia  warmed,  just 
aa  water  flows  from  green  wood  in  the  stove. 


30  TIMBER. 

Tbe  rapidity  with  which  water  is  evaporated,  that  is,  the  rate  of 
drjiiiji',  depoiuls  on  the  size  and  shape  of  the  piece  and  on  the  struc- 
ture of  the  wood.  An  incli  board  dries  niore  than  four  times  as  fast 
as  a  4-iiich  plank  and  more  than  twenty  times  as  fast  as  a  10-inch 
timber.  Wliite  pine  (bies  faster  than  oak.  A  verj-  moist  piece  of  pine 
or  oak  will,  during  one  hour,  lose  more  than  four  times  as  much  water 
per  square  inch  from  the  cross  section,  but  only  one-half  as  much  from 
the  tangential,  as  from  the  radial  section. 

lu  a  long  timber,  where  the  end  or  cross  sections  form  but  a  small 
part  of  the  drying  surface,  this  difference  is  not  so  evident.  Never- 
theless, the  ends  dry  and  shrink  first^  and  being  opposed  in  this  shrink- 
ing by  the  more  moist  adjoining  parts,  tkej:_cliecl^_the  cracks  largely 
disappearing  as  seasoning  progresses. 

High  temperatures  are  very  eflective  in  evaporating  tlie  water  from 
wood,  no  matter  how  humid  the  air.  A  fresh  piece  of  sapwood  may 
lose  weight  in  boding  water,  and  can  be  dried  to  quite  an  extent  in 
hot  steam. 

Kept  on  a  shelf  in  an  ordinary  dwelling  wood  still  retains  8  to  10 
per  cent  of  its  weight  of  water,  and  always  contains  more  water  per 
pound  than  the  surrounding  air.  Nor  is  this  amount  of  water  constant; 
the  weight  of  a  pan  full  of  shavings  varies  with  the  time  of  day,  being 
on  a  summer  day  greatest  in  the  morning  and  least  in  the  afternoon. 

Desiccating  the  air  witli  chemicals  will  cause  the  wood  to  dry,  but 
wood  thus  dried  at  80°  F.  will  still  lose  water  in  the  kiln.  Wood  dried 
at  120°  F.  loses  water  still  if  dried  at  200°  F.,  and  this  again  will  lose 
more  water  if  the  temperature  is  raised.  So  that  absolutely  dry  wood 
can  not  be  obtained,  and  chemical  destruction  sets  in  before  all  the 
water  is  driven  off. 

On  removal  from  the  kiln  the  wood  at  once  takes  up  water  from  the 
air,  even  in  the  driest  weather.  At  first  the  absorption  is  quite  rapid; 
at  the  end  of  a  week  a  short  piece  of  pine,  1.^  inches  thick,  has  regained 
two-thirds  of,  and,  in  a  few  months,  all  the  moisture  which  it  liad  when 
air  dry,  8  to  10  per  cent,  and  also  its  former  dimensions. 

In  thin  boards  all  parts  soon  attain  the  same  degree  of  dryness;  iu 
heavy  timbers  the  interior  remains  moister  for  many  months,  and  even 
years,  than  the  exterior  parts.  Finally  an  equilibrium  is  reached,  and 
then  only  the  outer  parts  change  with  the  weather. 

With  kiln-dried  wood  all  parts  are  e(]ually  dry,  and  when  exposed 
the  moisture  coming  from  the  airmust  pass  in  tlirough  the  outer  i)arts, 
and  thus  the  order  is  reversed.  Ordinary  timber  requires  months 
before  it  is  at  its  best;  kiln-dry  timber,  if  properly  handled,  is  prime 
at  once. 

Dry  wood,  when  soaked  in  water,  soon  regains  its  original  volume, 
and  in  the  heartwood  portion  it  may  even  surpass  it;  that  is  to  say, 
swell  to  a  larger  dimension  than  it  had  when  green.  With  the  soaking 
it  continues  to  increase  iu  weight,  the  cell  cavities  filling  with  water, 


SEASONING   WOOD.  31 

and  if  left  many  months  all  pieces  sink.  Yet  even  after  a  year's  immer- 
sion a  i)iece  of  oak  2  by  li  inches  and  only  0  inches  long  still  contains 
air,  i.  e.,  it  has  not  taken  np  all  the  water  it  can.  By  rafting,  or  pro- 
longed immersion,  wood  loses  some  of  its  weight,  soluble  materials 
being  leached  out,  but  it  is  not  impaired  either  as  fuel  or  as  building 
material.  Immersion  and,  still  more,  boiling  and  steaming  reduce  the 
hygroscopicity  of  wood  and,  therefore,  also  the  troublesome  "working" 
or  shrinking  and  swelling. 

Exposure  in  dry  air  to  a  temperature  of  300^^  F  for  a  short  time 
reduces,  but  does  not  destroy,  the  hygroscopicity  and  with  it  the  tend- 
ency to  shrink  and  swell.  A  piece  of  red  oak,  which  has  been  sub- 
jected to  a  temperature  of  over  300°  F.,  still  swells  in  hot  vrater  and 
shrinks  in  the  kiln. 

In  artificial  drying,  temperatures  of  from  158°  F.  to  180°  F.  are 
usually  employed.  Pine,  spruce,  cypress,  cedar,  etc.,  are  dried  fresh 
from  the  saw,  allowing  four  days  for  1-inch  boards;  hard  woods,  esjie- 
ciallyoak,  ash,  maple,  birch,  sycamore,  etc.,  are  air-seasoned  for  three  to 
six  months,  to  allow  the  first  shrinkage  to  take  place  more  gradually, 
and  are  then  exposed  to  the  above  temi^eratures  in  the  kiln  for  about 
six  to  ten  days  for  1-inch  lumber.  Freshly  cut  poplar  and  cottouwood 
are  often  dried  directly  in  kilns. 

By  employing  lower  temperatures,  100°  to  120o  F.,  green  oak,  ash, 
etc.,  can  be  seasoned  in  dry  kilns  without  danger  to  the  material. 
Steaming  the  lumber  is  commonly  resorted  to  in  order  to  prevent  check- 
ing and  ''casehardeuing,"  but  not,  as  has  frequently  been  asserted,  to 
enable  the  board  to  dry.  Yard-dried  lumber  is  not  dry,  and  its  moist- 
ure is  too  unevenly  distributed  to  insure  good  behavior  after  manufac- 
ture. Careful  piling  of  the  lumber,  both  in  the  yard  and  kiln,  is  essen- 
tial to  good  drying.  Piling  boards  on  edge  or  standing  them  on  end 
is  believed  to  hasten  drying.  This  is  true  only  because  in  cither  case 
the  air  can  circulate  more  freely  around  them  than  when  they  are  piled 
in  the  ordinary  way.  Boards  on  end  dry  unequally:  the  npper  half 
dries  much  faster  than  the  lower  half  and  horizontal  piling  is,  therefore, 
preferable. 

Since  the  proportion  of  sap  and  heart  wood  varies  with  size,  age, 
species,  and  individual,  the  following  figures  must  be  regarded  as  mere 
approximations: 

Pounds  of  tvater  lost  i)i  drying  100  pounds  of  green  wood  in  the  kiln. 


(1)  Pines,  cedars,  spruces,  antl  firs , 

;2)  Cypress,  extremely  variable 

;3)  Poplar,  cottfinwocifl.  bass  wood 

(4)  Oak.  beech,  ash,  eitu,  maple,  birch,  liickory,  chestnut,  walnut,  and  syca- 
more   


Sapwoodor   Heartwood 
outer  part,    or  interior. 


45-65 
50-65 
60-65 


16-25 
18-60 
40-60 


The  lighter  kinds  have  the  mo.st  water  in  the  sapwood,  thus  sycamore  has  more  than  hickory. 


32 


TIMBER. 


rr\ 


IV.— SHRINKAGE  OF  WOOD. 

When  a  short  piece  of  wood  fiber,  such  as  that  shown  in  fig.  18,  JL,  is 
dried  it  shrinks,  its  wall  j^rows  thinner  (as  indicated  by  dotted  lines), 

its  width,  a  />,  the  thickness  of  the 
liber,  becomes  smaller,  and  the 
cavity  or  opening  larger,  but, 
strange  to  say,  the  height  or  length, 
b  c,  ren)ains  the  same.  In  a  similar 
piece  of  fiber  with  a  thinner  wall 
(fig.  18,  B)  the  efiect  is  the  same, 
but  the  wall  being  only  half  as 
thick  the  total  change  is  only  about 
half  as  great.' 

If  sections  or  pieces  of  fibers  are 

dried    and   then   ])laced   on    moist 

blotti'ig  i)aper,  they  will 

take  up  water  and  swell  to 

their  original  size,  though 

the  water  has  been  taken 

up  only  by  their  walls  and 

none  has  entered  into  their 

openings  or  liimina.     This 

indicates  that  the  water  in  the  cq,vity  or  lumen  of  a  fiber  has 

nothing  to  do  with  its  dimensions,  and  that  if  the  cell  walls 

are  saturated  it  makes  no  ditference  in 

the  volume  of  a  block  of  pine  wood 

whether  the  cell  cavities  are  emi)ty  as 

in  the  hcartwood  or  three  fourths  filled 

as  in  the  sapwood. 

If  an  entire  fiber,  as  shown  in  fig.  19,  is  dried, 
tlie  wall  at  its  ends  a  and  i,  like  those  of  the 

C^^l irS^"       sides,  grow  thinner,  and  thereby  the  length  of 

w=:>'U==i/W=<  the  entire  cell  grows  shorter.  Since  this  length 
IS  often  a  hundred  or  more  times  as  great  as 
the  diameter,  the  effect  of  this  shrinkage  is 
inappreciable;  and  if  a  long  board  shrinks 
lengthwise,  it  is  largely  due.  as  we  shall  see,  to 
(juite  another  cause. 

A  thin  cross  section  of  several  fibers  (see  fig. 
LM),  A)  like  the  piece  of  a  single  fiber  shrinks 
I&.20.-    arjuiigo  \%oo(        y\\x(i\\  dried,  the  wall  of  each  fiber  becomes  thin- 
ner, and  thus  each  piece  smaller,  and  the  piece  on  the  whole  necessarily 


FlQ.  18  —Short  pieces  of  ■wood  fibers,  one  thick, 
the  other  thiu  walled  ,  niaunitied. 


I'lu.  19.— 
Isolated 
c.ll. 


'  Though  generally  true,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  fibers  of  all  species,  or 
even  the  tibers  of  the  same  tree,  shriuk  exactly  in  proportion  to  the  thickness  of 
their  walls. 


SHRINKAGE    AND    CHECKS. 


33 


shares  this  dimiuutioii  of  size,  the  distances,  a  b  and  c  d,  each  becoming 
shorter.  Where  the  cells  are  very  similar  in  size  and  in  the  thickness 
of  their  walls,  as  in  the  case  of  piece  A,  fig.  20,  a  h  and  c  d  become 
shorter  by  about  the  same  amount;  but  if  the  piece  is  made  up  of 
libers,  some  of  which  have  thin  and  others  thick  walls,  as  piece  7>,  fig. 
lM),  then  the  row  of  thick-walled  cells  shrinking  much  more  than  the 
row  of  thin-walled  cells,  the  piece  becomes  unevenly  shrunk  or  warped 
as  shown  in  fig.  20,  G.  Xot  only  is  the  piece  warped,  but  the  force 
which  led  to  this  warping  continues  to  strain  the  interior  parts  of  the 
piece  in  different  directions. 

Since  in  all  our  woods  cells  with  thick  walls  and  cells  with  thin  walls 
are  more  or  less  intermixed,  and  especially  as  the  spring  wood  and 
summer  wood  nearly  always  differ  from  each 
other  in  this  respect,  strains  and  tendencies 
to  warp  are  always  active  when  wood  dries 
out,  because  the  summer  wood  shrinks  more 
than  the  spring  wood,  heavier  wood  in  gen- 
eral more  than  light  wood  of  the  same  kind. 

If  the  piece  A^  fig.  20,  after  drying,  is 
placed  edgewise  on  moist  blotting  paper, 
the  cells  on  the  underside,  at  c  (7,  take  up 
moisture  from  the  paper  and  swell  before 
the  upper  cells  at  a  h  receive  any  moisture. 
This  causes  the  underside  of  the  piece  to  be- 
come longer  than  the  upper  side  and,  as  in 
the  case  of  piece  C,  warping  occurs.  Soon, 
however,  the  moisture  penetrates  to  all  the 
cells  and  the  iiiece  straightens  out.  A  thin 
board  behaves  exactly  like  this  minute  piece, 
only  the  process  is  slower  and  more  easily  ob- 
served. But  while  a  thin  board  of  pine  curves 
laterally,  it  remains  quite  straight  length- 
wise, since  in  this  direction  both  shrinkage 
and  swelling  are  small.  A  thin  disk  or  cross 
section  swells,  and  when  moistened  on  one  side  warps  as  rendily  in  one 
direction  as  in  another.  If  a  green  board  is  exposed  to  the  sun  with 
one  side,  warping  is  produced  by  removal  of  water  and  consequent 
shrinkage  of  the  upper  side,  and  the  course  of  the  process  is  simply 
reversed. 

As  already  stated,  wood  loses  water  faster  from  the  end  than  from 
the  longitudinal  faces.  Hence  the  ends  shrink  at  a  different  rate  from 
the  interior  parts. 

In  a  timber,  the  width  A  B  (fig.  21,  X)  may  have  shortened  (fig.  21, 

Y),  while  a  short  distance  from  the  end  c  d,  the  original  width  is  still 

preserved.     This  should  produce  a  bending  of  the  parts  toward  the 

center  of  the  piece  as  shown  in  exaggeration  at  Y,  but  the  rigidity  of 

3521— No.  10 3 


Fig.  21.— Formation  ol'  checks. 


34 


TIMBER. 


the  several  parts  of  the  timber  prevents  such  bending  and  the  conse 
queut  strain  leads  to  their  separation  as  shown  at  Z,  the  end  surface 
of  the  timber  being  ''checked." 

As  the  timber  dries  out,  the  line  c  d  becomes  sliorter,  the  parts  1  to  <J 
are  allowed  to  api)roach  again,  and  the  checks  close  up  and  are  no 
longer  visible. 

The  faster  the  drying  at  the  surface,  the  greater  is  the  difference  in 
the  moisture  of  the  different  parts,  and  hence  the  greater  the  strains 
and  conseciucntly  also  the  amount  of  checking.  This  becomes  very 
evident  when  IVesh  wood  is  placed  in  the  sun,  and  still  more  in  a  hot  kiln. 
While  most  of  these  smaller  checks  are  thus  only  temporary,  closing 
up  again,  some  large  radial  checks  remain  and  even  grow  larger  as 
drying  i)rogresses.  Their  cause  is  a  different  one  and  will  presently  be 
explained. 
The  temporary  checks  not  only  occur  at  the  ends,  but  are  developed 

on  the  sides  also,  only  to  a  much  smaller 
degree.  They  become  especially  an- 
noying on  the  surface  of  thick  planks 
of  hard  woods,  and  also  on  peeled  logs 
when  exposed  to  the  sun. 

So  far  we  have  considered  the  wood 
as  if  made  u])  only  of  parallel  libers  all 
placed  longitudinally  in  the  log.  This, 
however,  is  not  the  case.  A  large  part 
of  the  wood  is  formed  by  the  medul- 
lary or  pith  rays.  In  pine  over  15,000 
of  these  occur  on  a  square  inch  of  a 
tangential  section,  and  even  in  oak  the 
very  large  rays,  which  are  readily  visi- 
ble to  the  eye,  represent  scarcely  a 
hundredth  part  of  the  number  which 
the  microscoi)e  reveals. 

As  seen  in  fig.  22  the  cells  of  these 
rays  have  their  length  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  the  wood  fibers. 
If  a  large  pith  ray  of  white  oak  is  whittled  out  and  allowed  to  dry  it 
is  found  to  shrink  greatly  in  the  direction  from  c  to  d  (tig.  22),  while,  as 
we  have  stated,  the  fibers  to  which  the  ray  is  firmly  grown  in  the  wood 
do  not  shrink  in  the  same  direction.  Therefore,  in  the  wood,  as  the 
cells  of  the  pith  ray  dry,  they  pull  on  the  longitudiiuil  fibers  and  try 
to  shorten  them,  and,  being  opposed  by  the  rigidity  of  the  fibers,  the 
pith  ray  is  greatly  strained.  But  this  is  not  the  only  strain  it  has  to 
bear.  Since  the  fibers  from  a  to  b  (fig.  22)  shrink  as  much  again  as  the 
pith  ray  in  this,  its  longitudinal  direction,  the  fibers  t<'nd  to  shorten 
the  ray,  and  the  latter,  in  opposing  this,  prevents  the  former  from 


Fig. 22. — Small  pith  ray  in  oak.    a.b,  wood 
fibers;  c,  d.  cells  of  pitli  ray. 


EFFECT   OF  TANGENTIAL   SHRINKAGE. 


35 


shrinkinti^  as  lunch  as  they  otlievwiso  would.  Tims  the  structure  is 
subjected  to  two  severe  straius  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  herein 
lies  the  greatest  diftlculty  of  wood  seasoning,  for  wlienever  the  wood 
dries  rapidly  these  fibers  have  not  the  chance  to  "give'' or  accommo- 
date themselves,  and  hence  fibers  and  pith  rays  separate  and  checks 
result  which,  whether  visible  or  not,  are  detrimental  in  the  use  of  the 
wood. 

The  contraction  of  the  pith  rays  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  board  is 
jirobably  one  of  the  causes  of  the  small  amount  of  longitudinal  shrink- 
age which  has  been  observed  in  boards.'  The  smaller  shrinkage  of  the 
l)ithrays  along  the  radius  of  the  log  (the  length  of  the  pith  ray)  oppos- 
ing the  shrinkage  of  the  fibers  in  this  direction  becomes  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  second  great  trouble  in  wood  seasoning,  namely,  the  dif- 
ference in  the  amount  of  the  shrinkage  along  the  radius 
and  that  along  the  rings  or  tangent. 

This  greater  tangential  shrinkage  appears  to  be  due, 
in  part,  to  the  cause  just  mentioned,  but  also  to  the 
fact  that  the  greatly  shrinking  bands  of  summer 
wood  are  interrupted,  along  the  radius,  by  as  many 
bands  of  porous  spring  wood,  while  they  are  contin- 
uous in  the  tangential  direction.  In  this  direction, 
therefore,  each  such  band  tends  to  shrink,  as  if  the 
entire  piece  were  composed  of  summer  wood,  and  since 
the  summer  wood  represents  the  greater  part  of  the 
wood  substance,  this  tendency  of  greater  tangential 
shrinkage  prevails. 

The  effect  of  this  greater  tangential  shrinkage 
affects  every  phase  of  woodworking.  It  leads  to  per- 
manent checks,  and  causes  the  log  to  s])lit  open  on 
drying. 

Sawed  in  two,  the  fiat  sides  of  the  log  become  con 
vex,  as  in  fig.  23;  sawed  into  a  timber,  it  checks  along 
the  median  line  of  the  four  faces,  and  if  converted 
int©  boards,  the  latter  take  on  the  forms  shown  in  fig.  23,  all  owing  to 
the  greater  tangential  shrinkage  of  the  wood. 

Brietiy,  then,  shrinkage  of  wood  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cell  walls 
grow  thinner  on  drying.  The  thicker  cell  walls  and  therefore  the 
heavier  wood  shrinks  most,  while  the  water  in  the  cell  cavities  does  not 
influence  the  volume  of  the  wood.  Owing  to  the  great  difiereuce  of 
cells  in  shape,  size,  and  thickness  of  walls,  and  still  more  in  their 
arrangement,  shrinkage  is  not  uniform  in  any  kind  of  wood.  This 
irregularity  i)roduces  strains,  which  grow  with  the  difiereuce  between 

'In  addition  to  this  all  fibers  having  an  oblique  position,  as  those  at  pith  rays  and 
knots,  also  the  oblique,  tiiporing  ends  of  all  fibers  contribute  to  this  lonj^itudinal 
shrinkage,  since  one  component  of  their  normal  shrinkage  is  longitudinal. 


Fig.  23.— Ktlects   of 
shrinkage. 


36  TIMBER. 

adjoining^  cells  and  are  j^^reatest  at  the  pitli  rays.  These  strains  cause 
wari)ing-  and  checking,  but  exist  even  wliere  no  outward  signs  are  visi- 
ble; they  are  greater  if  the  wood  is  dried  rapidly  than  if  dried  slowly, 
but  can  never  be  entirely  avoided. 

Temporary  checks  are  caused  by  the  more  rapid  drying  of  the  outer 
parts  of  any  stick ;  permanent  checks  are  due  to  the  greater  shrink- 
age, tangentiall}',  along  the  rings  than  that  along  the  ra<lius.  This, 
too,  is  the  cause  of  most  of  the  ordinary  [)heiioinena  of  shrinkage,  such 
as  the  difference  in  behavior  of  entire  and  quartered  logs  "bastard" 
(tangent)  and  "rift"  (radial)  boards,  etc.,  and  explains  many  of  the 
idienonieua  erroneously  attributed  to  the  inlluence  of  bark,  or  of  the 
greater  shrinkage  of  outer  and  inner  parts  of  any  log. 

Once  dry,  wood  may  be  swelled  again  to  its  original  size  by  soaking 
in  water,  boiling,  or  steaming.  (Soaked  pieces,  on  drying,  shrink  again 
as  before ;  boiled  and  steamed  pieces  do  the  same,  but  to  a  slightly  less 
degree.  Xeither  hygroscopicity,  i.  e.,  the  capacity  of  taking  up  water, 
nor  shrinkage  of  wood  can  be  overcome  by  drying  at  temperatures  below 
200°  F.     Bigher  temperatures,  however,  reduce  these  qualities,  but 

nothing  short  of  a  coaling  heat  robs  wood 
of  the  capacity  to  shrink  and  swell.  Eajtidly 
dried  in  the  kiln,  the  wood  of  oak  and  other 
hard  woods  "case-harden,"  that  is,  the  outer 
part  dries  and  shrinks  before  the  interior 
Fi«.    24.-'  Honeycombed"    board.     ^^^  ^  chauce  to  do  the  sauic,  aud  thus  fin'IUS 

The  checks  or  cracks  form  along      a  firm  sllcU  Or  CaSC  of  shruukeu,  COmUlOuly 

the  pith  rays.  chcckcd  wood  arouud  the  interior.  This  shell 

does  not  prevent  the  interior  from  drying,  but  when  this  drying  oc<urs, 
the  interior  is  commonly  checked  along  the  medullary  rays,  as  shown 
in  fig.  24.  In  practice  this  occurrence  can  be  prevented  by  steaming  the 
lumber  in  the  kiln,  and  still  better  by  drying  the  wood  in  the  open  air 
or  in  a  shed  belore  placing  in  the  kiln.  Since  oidy  the  lirst  shrinking 
is  apt  to  check  the  wood,  any  kind  of  lumber  which  has  once  been  air 
dried  (three  to  six  months  for  1-inch  stutt)  may  be  subjected  to  kiln  heat 
without  any  danger.  Kept  in  a  bent  or  warped  condition  during  the 
first  shriidiing,  the  wood  retains  the  shape  to  which  it  was  bent  and 
firmly  opposes  any  attempt  at  subsequent  straightening. 

Sapwood,  as  a  rule,  shrinks  more  than  heartwoodof  the  same  weight, 
but  very  heavy  heartwood  may  shriidc  more  than  lighter  sapwood. 
The  amount  of  water  in  wood  is  no  criterion  of  its  shrinkage,  since  in 
wet  wood  most  of  the  water  is.  held  in  the  cavities,  where  it  has  no 
effect  on  the  volume. 

The  wood  of  pine,  spruce,  cypress,  etc.,  with  its  very  regular  struc- 
ture, dries  and  shrinks  evenly  aud  suffers  much  less  in  seasoning  than 
the  wood  of  broad  leafed  trees.  Among  the  latter,  oak  is  the  most 
difficult  to  dry  without  injury.  Small-sized  split  ware  and  "rift" 
boards  season  better  than  ordinary  boards  and  planks. 


AMOUNT    OF    SHRINKAGE.  37 

To  avoid  "working''  or  waipiiijjj  and  cliecUinj;-,  all  liigh-^rade  stock 
is  carefully  seasoned,  preferably  in  a  kiln,  before  manufacture.  Thicker 
pieces  may  be  made  of  several  parts  glued  together;  larger  surfaces  sue 
made  in  i)anels  or  of  smaller  .pieces  covere<l  witli  veneer.  Uoring  is 
sometimes  resorted  to  to  pievent  the  checking  of  wooden  columns. 

Since  repeated  swelling  increases  the  injuries  due  to  seasoning,  wood 
should  be  ])rotected  against  moisture  when  once  it  is  dry. 

Since  the  shrinkage  of  our  woods  has  never  been  carefully  studied, 
and  since  wood,  even  from  the  same  tree,  varies  within  considerable 
limits,  the  figures  given  in  the  following  table  are  to  be  regarded  as 
mere  approximations.  The  shrinkage  ah)ng  the  radius  and  that  along 
the  tangent  (parallel  to  the  rings)  are  not  stated  separately  in  the 
following  table,  and  the  figures  represent  an  average  of  the  shrinkage 
in  the  two  directions.  Thus,  if  the  shrinkage  of  soft  pine  is  given  at 
3  inches  i>er  hundred,  it  means  that  the  sum  of  radial  and  tangential 
shrinkage  is  about  (5  inches,  of  which  about  4  inches  fall  to  the  tangent 
and  2  inches  to  the  radius,  the  ratio  between  these  varying  from  ,3  to  2, 
a  ratio  which  practically  prevails  in  most  of  our  woods. 

Since  only  an  insignificant  longitudinal  shrinkage  takes  place  (being 
commonly  less  than  0.1  inch  per  hundred),  the  change  in  volume  duiing 
drying  is  about  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  radial  and  tangential  slnink- 
age,  or  twice  the  amount  of  linear  shrinkage  indicated  in  the  table. 

Thus,  if  the  linear  average  shrinkage  of  soft  pine  is  3  inches  per 
hundred,  the  shrinkage  in  volume  is  about  6  cubic  inches  for  each  1(K) 
cubic  inches  of  fresh  wood. 

Approximate  shrinkage  of  a  hoard,  or  set  of  boards,  100  inches  tvide,  drying  in  the  open  air. 


Shrink- 
age. 


(1)  All  light  con  iters  (soft  ]>iue,  spruce,  cedar,  cypress) 

(2)  Heavy  couiters  (hard  ]iine,  tamaiack,  yew),  lioney  locust  box  elder,  wood  of  old  oaks. 
('■ii  Ash,  elm,  waluut,  ))oplar,  niajth-,  beech,  sycamore,  cheiry,  black  locust 

(4)  Bass  wood,  birch,  ebestnut,  horse  chestmit,  blue  beech,  young  locust 

(5)  Hickory,  young  oak,  especially  red  oak .' 


rue  hen. 
:i 

4 


Up  to  10 


v.— MECHANICAL    PROPERTIES    OF   WOOD. 

Every  joist  and  studding,  every  rafter,  sash,  and  door,  the  chair  we 
sit  on,  the  floor  we  walk  on,  the  wood  of  the  wagon  or  boat  we  ride  in 
are  all  continually  tested  as  to  their  stiffness  and  strength,  their  hard- 
ness and  toughness.  Every  step  from  the  simple  splitting  of  a  shingle 
or  stave  to  the  construction  of  the  most  elegant  carriage  or  sideboard 
involves  a  knowledge,  not  only  of  one,  but  of  several,  of  the  mechanical 
properties  of  the  material. 

In  the  shop  the  fitness  of  the  wood  for  a  given  purpose  never  depends 
on  any  one  quality  alone,  but  invariably  upon  a  combination  of  several 
qualities.     A  spoke  must  not  only  be  strong,  it  must  be  stiff  to  hold  its 


38  TIMBER. 

shape,  it  must  be  tou^li  to  avoid  shattering  to  pieces,  and  it  must  also 
be  hard  or  else  its  tenons  will  become  loose  in  their  mortises. 

Selecting  wood  in  this  way,  the  woodworker  has  learned  almost  all 
that  is  at  present  known  about  his  material,  but  in  many  cases  the 
great  difficulty  which  always  attends  the  judgment  of  complex  phe- 
nomena has  led  to  erroneous  conclusions,  and  not  a  few  well-established 
beliefs  have  their  origin  more  in  accidental  error  of  observation  than 
in  fact. 

The  experimenter  endeavors  to  avoid  this  complexity  by  testing  the 
wood  for  each  kind  of  resistance  separately;  when  tested  as  to  their 
stiffness,  the  pieces  are  all  shaped,  i)laced,  and  loaded  alike.  The  wood 
is  selected  with  a  detinite  object  in  view;  it  is  green  or  dry,  clear  or 
knotty,  straight  or  crossgrained,  according  as  he  wishes  to  find  out  the 
intluence  of  each  of  these  conditions.  If  pine  ami  oak  are  to  be  com- 
pared, the  pieces  are  from  the  same  position  in  the  tree  and  are  tried 
under  exactly  the  same  conditions,  and  thus  the  case  is  simplified. 

But  even  results  thus  ai  rived  at  can  not  be  used  indiscriminately,  and 
the  figures  on  the  strength  of  oak  given  in  any  book  must  not  be  sup- 
posed to  apply  to  all  oak,  if  tested  in  the  given  manner.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  a  piece  of  wood  is  not  simply  a  material  but  a  structure, 
just  as  much  as  a  railroad  bridge  or  a  balloon  frame,  and  as  such  varies 
greatly  even  in  the  wood  of  the  same  tree,  nay,  more  than  that,  even  in 
the  same  year's  growth  of  the  same  cross  section  of  a  log. 

A  scantling  resists  bending;  it  is  stiff.  On  removal  of  the  load  it 
straightens;  it  is  elastic.  A  column,  a  prop,  or  the  spoke  of  a  wagon 
wheel  resists  being  crushed  endwise.  So  does  the  upper  side  of  a  joist 
or  beam  when  loaded,  while  the  underside  of  the  beam  or  of  an  ax 
handle  suffers  in  tension.  The  tenons  of  a  window  sash  or  door  tend  to 
break  out  their  mortises,  the  wood  has  to  resist  shearing  along  the  fibers ; 
the  steel  edge  of  the  eye  tends  to  cut  into  the  hammer  handle,  it  tries 
to  shear  it  across  tlie  grain,  and  every  nail,  screw,  bore  hole,  or  mortise 
tends  to  split  the  board  and  tries  the  wood  as  to  its  cleavability,  while 
all  "bent"  ware,  from  the  wicker  basket  to  the  one-piece  felly  or  ship's 
knee,  involves  its  flexibility. 

STIFFNESS. 

If  100  pounds  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  stick  2  by  2  inches  and  4  feet 
long,  supported  at  both  ends,  bend  or  "deflect"  this  stick  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  (in  the  middle),  then  200  pounds  will  bend  it  about  one-fourth 
inch,  300  ])ounds  three-eighths  incii,  the  deflection  varying  directly  as 
the  load.  Soon,  however,  a  point  is  reached  where  an  additional  100 
pounds  adds  more  than  one-eighth  inch  to  the  deflection — the  limit  of 
elasticity  has  been  reached.  Taking  another  i)iece  from  the  straight 
grained  and  perfectly  clear  ])lank  of  the  same  depth  and  width,  but  S 
feet  long,  the  load  of  100  ])ounds  will  cause  it  to  bend  not  only  one 
eighth  inch,  but  will  deflect  it  by  about  1  inch.     Doubling  the  length 


STIFFNESS    OF    WOOD.  39 

reduces  the  stiffness  eishtfold.     Stiffness  then  decreases  as  the  cube  of 
the  lenjj^th. 

Cutting:  out  a  i)iece  2  by  4  inches  and  4  feet  long-,  ]>hu'ing  it  flatwise 
so  that  it  is  double  the  width  of  the  ibnner  stick  and  loading-  it  with 
100  pounds,  we  find  it  bending  only  one-sixteenth  inch;  doubling- the 
width  doubles  the  stiffness. 

Setting  the  same  2  by  4  inch  i)iece  on  edge,  so  that  it  is  2  inches  wide 
and  4  inches  deep,  the  load  of  100  jjounds  bends  it  only  about  one 
sixty-fourth  in(!h:  doubling  the  thickness  increases  the  stiffness  about 
eightfold. 

rt  follows  that  if  we  double  the  length  and  wish  to  retain  the  same 
stiffness  we  must  also  double  the  thickness  of  the  piece. 

A  piece  of  wood  is  usually  stiffer  with  the  annnal  rings  set  vertically 
than  if  the  rings  are  i)Iaced  horizontally  to  the  load. 

Crossgrained  and   knotty  wood,  to  be  sure,  is  not  as  stiff  as  clear 
lumber;  a  knot  on  the  upper  side  of  a  joist,  which  must  resist  in  com- 
pression, is,  however,  not    so    detri- 
mental as  a  knot  on  the  lower  side,        n^ — — r-z — zr^ 

where  it  is  tried  in  tension.  *f'/'"--- -—- — ■  ^^^^^p 

Every  large  timber  which    comes        ^--- '.11,,,, ^■^'—"m, 

from  the  central  part  of  the  tree  con- 

.     .  ,         ,  T  1        /.    • ,  1   •  Fig.  25. — BeiidinL'- :i  buam. 

tains  knots,  and  much  of  its  wood  is 

cut  more  or  less  obliquely  across  the  grain,  both  conditions  rendering 

such  material  comparatively  less  stiff"  than  small  clear  pieces. 

The  same  stick  of  pine,  green  or  wet,  is  only  about  two-thirds  as 
stiff  as  when  dry.  A  heavy  piece  of  longleaf  i)ine  is  stiffer  than  a  light 
piece;  heavy  pine  in  general  is  stiffer  than  light  pine,  but  a  piece  of 
hickory,  although  heavier  than  the  pine,  may  not  be  as  stiff'  as  the 
piece  of  longleaf  pine,  and  a  good  piece  of  larch  exceeds  in  stiffness 
any  oak  of  the  same  weight. 

In  the  same  tree  stiffness  varies  with  the  weight,  the  heavier  wood 
being  the  stiffer;  thus  the  heavier  wood  of  the  butt  log  is  stiffer  than 
that  of  the  top;  timber  with  much  of  the  heavy  summer  wood  is  stiffer 
than  timber  of  the  same  kind  with  less  summer  wood.  In  old  trees  (of 
pine)  the  center  of  the  tree  and  the  sap  are  the  least  stiff;  in  thrifty 
young  pine  the  center  is  the  least  stiff",  but  in  young  second  growth 
hard  woods  it  is  the  stiffest. 

Since  it  is  desirable,  and  for  many  purposes  essential,  to  know  before 
hand  that  a  given  piece  with  a  given  load  will  bend  only  a  given 
amount,  the  stiffness  of  wood  is  usually  stated  in  a  uniform  manner 
and  under  the  term  "modulus  (measure)  of  elasticity.'' 

If  AB,  fig.  25,  is  a  piece  of  wood,  and  d  the  deflection  produced  by  a 

weight  or  load,  the  elasticity  of  the  wood,  as  usually  stated,  is  found 

by  the  formula: 

W  P 
Modulus  of  elasticity  =     i-w-?~T, — 

4:D  b(P 


40  TIMBER. 

where  W  is  tlie  weight,  /  the  length,  b  and  d  the  breadth  and  depth  of 
the  stick,  and  D  the  deflection  for  tlie  load  W.  In  the  following  table 
the  woods  are  grouped  according  to  their  stiffness.  The  figures  are  only 
rough  approximations  which  are  based  on  the  data  given  in  Vol.  IX  of 
the  Tenth  Census.  The  first  column  contains  the  above  modulus,  the 
second  shows  how  many  pounds  will  produce  a  deflection  of  1  iuch  in  a 
stick  1  by  1  by  12  inches,  assuming  that  it  could  endure  such  bending 
within  the  limits  of  elasticity,  and  the  third  column  gives  the  number 
of  pounds  which  will  bend  a  stick  2  by  2  inches  and  10  feet  long  through 
1  inch. 

The  stick  is  assumed  to  rest  on  both  ends;  if  it  is  a  cantilever,  i.  e., 
fastened  at  one  end  and  loaded  at  the  other,  it  bears  but  half  as  much 
load  at  its  end  for  the  same  deflection. 

From  the  third  column  it  is  easy  to  find  how  many  pounds  would 
bend  a  piece  of  the  same  kind  of  other  dimensions.  A  2  by  4  incli 
bears  eight,  a  2  by  6  iuch  twenty  seven  times  as  much  as  the  2  by  2 
inch;  a  jriece  8  feet  long  is  about  twice  as  stiff  as  a  10-foot  piece;  a 
piece  12  feet,  only  about  three-fifths,  14  feet  one-third,  16  feet  two- 
ninths,  18  feet  one-sixth,  and  20  feet  one-eighth  as  stifl". 

The  number  of  pounds  which  will  bend  any  piece  of  sawed  timber 
by  1  inch  may  be  found  by  using  the  formula: 

4  E  h(P 
Necessary  weight  =  — p — 

where  E  is  the  figure  in  the  first  column,  6,  (/,  /,  breadth,  depth,  and 
length  of  the  timber  in  inches.  If  the  deflection  is  not  to  exceed  one- 
half  inch,  only  one-half  the  load,  and  if  one-fourth  iuch,  only  one-fourth 
the  load,  is  permissible. 

To  allow  for  normal  irregularities  in  the  structure  of  wood  itself, 
as  well  as  in  the  aggregate  structure  of  timbers,  an  allowance  is  made 
on  the  numbers  which  have  been  found  by  experiment;  this  allowance 
is  called  the  "factor  of  safety."  Where  the  selection  of  the  wood  is 
not  very  perfect,  the  load  is  a  variable  one,  and  the  safety  of  human  life 
depends  on  the  structure,  the  factor  is  usually  taken  (^uite  high,  as 
nuicli  as  6  or  10,  i.  e.,  only  one-sixth  or  one-tenth  of  the  figures  given 
in  the  tables  is  considered  safe,  and  the  beam  is  made  six  to  ten  times 
as  heavy  as  the  calculation  requii'es. 


CROSS-BREAKING    STRENGTH. 


41 


Table  of  stiffness  {modulus  of  elasticiti/)  of  (hi/  wood. — Ceneral  averages. 


Speciea. 


(1)  Live  oak.  good  tamarack,  longleaf,   Cnbaii,  and  short- 
Ifal'  pine,  good  Douglas  spruce,  vestern  hemlock,  yel- 
low and  cherry  birch,  hard  maple,  beech,  locust,  and         Pounds. 
the  best  of  oak  ami  hickory 1,680,000 

(21  IJirch,  common  oak,  hickory,  white  and  black  spruce, 
loblolly  and  ted  piue,  cypiess,  best  of  ash,  elm,  and 
poplar  and  black  walnut 1,400,000 

(3)  Maples,  cherry,  ash.  elm,  sycamore,  sweet  gum.  butter- 

nut, poplar,  basswood,  white,  sugar  and  bull  pine, 

cedars,  scrub  pine,  hemlock,  and  tir 1. 100,000 

(4)  Box  elder,  horse  chestnut,  a  number  of  western  soft  [ 

pines,  inferior  grades  of  hard  woods 1, 100, 000 

^ I 

'  Less  than. 


Modulus  of 
elasticity 
F_    WP 

4  D  6dJ 
per  square 
incn. 


Approximate  weight  which 
deflects  by  1  inch  apiece— 

1  by  1  inch    :  2  by  2  inches 

and  12  and  10 

inches  long.  I     feet  long. 


Pound.i. 
3.900 


3,200 

2,500 
'2,500 


Pounds. 


CROSS-BREAKING   OR   ^iENDING   STRENGTH, 

When  the  addition  of  100  pounds  to  the  load  on  onr  U  by  -  inch  piece 
begins  to  add  more  than  one-eighth  inch  to  the  deflection,  that  is,  when 
the  stick  has  been  bent  beyond  its  '^'elastic  limit."  it  still  requires  an 
increase  of  30  to  50  per  cent  to  the  load  before  the  stick  breaks.  The 
load  which  is  borne  before  the  limit  of  elasticity  is  reached  indicates 
the  strength  of  the  wood  up  to  this  important  point;  the  load  which 
causes  it  to  break  represents  its  absolute  strength,  or  the  ''cross-break- 
ing or  bending  strength"  as  it  is  commonly  called. 

In  longleaf  pine  the  former  (modulus  of  strength  at  the  elastic  limit).' 
is  commonly  about  three-fourths  of  the  latter.  If  left  loaded  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  a  load  but  little  greater  than  that  which  brings  the 
stick  to  its  elastic  limit  will  cause  it  to  break,  and  this  load  should  there- 
fore not  be  exceeded. 

Unlike  the  stifluess,  the  strength  of  a  timber  varies  approximately 
with  the  squares  of  the  thickness  and  decreases  directly  with  increas- 
ing length  and  not  with  the  cube  of  this  latter  dimension.  Thus,  if  our 
piece  2  by  2  inches  and  4  feet  long  can  bear  1,000  pounds  before  it 
breaks,  a  2  by  4  inch  laid  flat  will  break  with  about  2.000  pounds,  and 
if  set  edgewise,  it  requires  about  4,000  pounds  to  break  it,  while  a 
piece  of  the  same  kind  of  2  by  2  inches,  and  double  the  length  (8  feet), 
breaks  with  half  the  original  load,  or  only  500  pounds. 

All  conditiohs  of  the  material  which  influence  the  stifl'ness  also  influ- 
ence the  bending  strength.  Seasoning  increases,  moisture  decreases, 
the  strength:  knots  and  crossgram  depress  it  and  both  are  more 
dangerous  on  the  lower  than  on  the  upper  side.  But  while  the  conifers 
with  their  simple  cell  structure  excel  in  stifluess,  the  better  hard  woods 

'The  elastic  limit  in  this  case  is  somewhat  of  an  arbitrary  quantity,  namely,  the 
point  where  100  pounds  produces  a  detiection  50  per  cent  greater  than  the  preceding 
100  pounds. 


42  TIMRER. 

develop  the  greater  strength  in  bending.  Like  elasticity  and  stiffness, 
the  strength  is  expressed  in  a  uniform  manner  by  the  so-called  "modu- 
lus of  rupture,"  to  permit  ready  estimation  of  the  strength  of  any 
given  piece.  This  modulus  refers  to  the  resistance  which  the  parts 
most  strained,  "the  extreme  tiber,"  otter.  For  reasons  above  stated 
in  practice  a  factor  of  safety  is  employed,  as  in  all  these  calculations 
of  resistance.  The  figures  usually  tabulated  are  obtained  by  the 
fornuila: 

3  W  ^ 
Strength  of  extreme  fiber  =    ^^i  ,., 

where  W  is  the  breaking  load,  I  the  length,  h  and  d  the  breadth  and 
depth  of  the  tested  piece  of  wood. 

The  following  table  presents  our  common  woods  grouped  as  to  their 
strength  in  bending.  The  load,  as  before,  is  supposed  to  act  altogether 
in  the  middle.  Column  1  gives  the  strength  of  the  extreme  fiber,  as 
explained  above ;  column  L',  the  number  of  pounds  which  will  break  a 
piece  1  by  1  inch  and  12  inches  long,  and  column  .3,  the  strength  of  a 
stick  2  by  2  inches  and  10  feet  long,  from  which  the  strength  of  any 
given  piece  can  readily  be  estimated,  allowing,  however,  for  defects, 
which  increase  with  the  size.  Thus,  if  a  good  piece  of  pine  2  by  2  inches 
and  10  feet  long  breaks  with  400  pounds,  a  2  by  4  inch  set  on  edge 
requires  1,000  pounds,  a  2  by  6  inch,  3,000  pounds,  a  2  by  8  inch  piece 
6,400  pounds  to  break  it.  If  a  piece  2  by  4  inches  and  10  feet  long 
breaks  with  1,600  pounds,  a  2  by  4  inch  and  12  feet  long  piece  breaks 
with  about  1,300  pounds,  one  16  feet  with  1,000  pounds,  etc.,  and  if  a 
factor  of  safety  of  10  is  allowed,  only  one-tenth  of  the  above  loads  are 
permissible. 

A  board  one-half  inch  by  12  inches  and  10  feet  long  contains  as  much 
wood  as  a  2  by  3  inch  of  the  same  length,  and  if  placed  edgewise  should 
otter  four  times  as  much  resistance  to  breaking.  Owing  to  its  small 
breadth,  however,  it  "twists"  when  loaded,  and  in  most  cases,  there- 
fore, bears  less  than  the  2  by  3  inch.  To  prevent  this  twisting,  joists 
are  braced,  and  the  depth  of  timbers  is  made  not  to  exceed  four  times 
their  thickness. 

Short  deep  pieces  shear  out  or  split  before  their  strength  in  bending 
can  fully  be  called  into  play. 


TENSION. 


48 


Strength  in  cross-breaking  of  well-aeasoned,  select  pieces. 


(1)  Robinia  (locnst),  hard  maple,  hiclcory,  oak,  birch,  best 

asli  and  elm,  longleat,  shortleaf,  and  Cuban  pines, 
tamarack 

(2)  Soft  maple,  cherry,  ash,  elm,  walnut,  interior  oak,  and 

birch,  best  piii)hir,  Norway,  loblolly  and  i)itch  i)ines, 

black  an<l  w  bite  sjjruce,  hemlock  and  good  cedar 

(H)  Tulip,  basswood,  sycamore,  butternut,  poplars,  white 
and  other  soft  pines,  firs,-  and  cedars 


Strength  of 
the  extreme 

liber 
SWl 
•'~  2  bd' 
per  square 

incli. 


Pounds. 
13,000 


10,000 
6,500 


Approximate  weight 
which  breaks  a  stick — 


1  by  1  inch 

and  12  inches 

long. 


Pounds. 


720 

550 
350 


2  by  2  inches 

arid  10  feet 

long. 


Pounds 


440 
280 


TENSION   AND    COMPRESSION. 

When  a  piece  of  wood  is  i^iiUed  lengthwise,  in  the  manner  shown  in 
fi^,  20,  part  of  the  fibers  ;ire  torn  asunder  or  broken,  but  many  are 
merely  pulled  or  shredded  out  from  between  their 
neighbors.  Since  fiiilure  in  tension  thus  involves 
lateral  adhesion  as  well  as  strength  of  fibers,  it  is 
affected  not  only  by  the  nature  and  dimensions  of  the 
fibers  but  also  by  their  arrangement.  Owing  to  their 
transverse  position  the  medullary  rays  (a  large  part  of 
all  woods)  ofier  but  one-tenth  to  one-twentieth  as  much 
resistance  as  the  main  body  of  fibers  and  moreover 
weaken  the  timber  by  disturbing  the  straight  course  of 
the  fibers  and  the  regularity  of  the  entire  structure. 

The  resistance  is  also 
much  affected  by  the 
position  of  the  grain. 
The  perfectly  cross- 
grained  piece  a  (fig.  27) 
sustains  but  about  one-tenth  to  one- 
twentieth  of  the  load  which  is  sup- 
l^orted  by  the  straight-grained  piece  c, 
and  it  is  evident  that  the  piece  b, 
which  represents  the  ordinary  case  of  crossgrain,  is  likewise  weakened 
by  the  oblique  position  of  the  grain. 
This  explains  the  detrimental  i  'flu- 
ence  of  a  knot  on  the  underside  of  a 
board,  as  in  fig.  28.  Since  the  lower 
side  of  the  board,  in  bending,  is 
stretched,  the  upper  side  being  com- 
pressed,   the   fibers   of  the    lower    side      Fig.  28._Etlect  of  knots  and  their  position. 

are  subjected  to  tension  and  the  wood  of  the  knot,  like  the  piece  of 
crossgrained  wood,  oft'ers  but  little  resistance.  Commonly  the  defect 
is  greatly  increased  by  a  season  check  in  the  knot  itself,  so  that  the 
knot  affects  the  strength  of  the  board  like  a  saw  cut  of  equal  depth. 


Fig.    26.— Specimen 
in  tension  test. 


Fig.  27. — Straight  and  cross  grained  wood. 


44 


TIMBER. 


Tested  in  coinpressioii  endwise  (fig.  29),  the  fibers  act  as  so  many 

hollow  columns  lirnily  j^rowu  together,  and  when  the  load  becoines  too 
great  the  piece  fails  in  the  manner  illustrated  in  fig. 
.'Jl.  This  failure  is  a  very  complex  phenomenon;  in 
wood  like  pine  the  fibers  of  the  plain  in  which  failure 
occurs  become  separated  into  small  bodies;  they  tear 
apart  and  cease  to  behave  as  one  solid  body  but  act 
as  a  large  number  of  very  small  independent  pieces. 
Like  the  strands  of  a  rope  these  small  bodies  ofler 
but  little  resistance  to  compression ;  thej^  bend  over, 
and  the  piece  '^  buckles." 

It  is  evident  that  a  vertical  position  and  a  regular 
arrangement  of  the    fibers    increase  the  resistance 

and    that    therefore     the    medullary 

rays  and    oblique  position    of  fibers 

in    crossgrained   and   knotty    timber 

tend  to  reduce  the  strength  in  com- 
pression. 

From  the  following  table  of  strength 

in  tension  and  compression  it  will  be 

seen  that  these  two  are  not  always 

proportional,  the  stiffer  conifers   excelling  in  the  latter,  the  t(nigher 

hard  woods  in  the  former: 


Fig.  29. — Coiupiessioii 
endwise. 


Fig.  30. — LonKitudiiial  slieariuii. 


lialio  of  strength  in  tennion  and  compretf-siim,  slioirin;!  the  difference  between  rigid  conifers 

and  fough  hard  woodn. 


Hickory 

KIni 

L;ircli 

Loujileaf  pinu 


R= 


Katio : 

Tensile 

strength. 


A  stick  1  square  inch 

in  cross  section. 
Weight  required  to — 


Strength  in  compression  of  common  American  woods  in  welt-seasoned  select  pieces. 

[ A pjiroxiniato  weight  per  square  iucli  of  <-ross  section  requisite  to  crush  a  piece  of  wood  endwise.] 

Pounds. 

(1)  ]Uack  locust,  yellow  and  cberry  birch,  hard  maple,  best  hickory,  longlcaf 

and  Cuban  pines,  and  tamarack it,  ()()()-f 

(2)  Common  hickory,  oal<,  birch,  soft  maple,  walnut,  good  elm,  best  ash, 

shortl(!af  and  loblolly  pines,  western  hemlock,  and  1  )ouglas  fir 7,  (1(1()-f- 

(3)  Ash,  sycamore,  beech,  inferior  oak,  Pacilic  white  cedar,  canoe  cedar,  Tjaw- 

son's    cypress,    common    rod    cedar,    cypress,    Norway   and     superior 
spruces,  and  fir G,  000+ 

(4)  Tulip,  basswood,  butternut,  chestnut,  good  poplar,  white  and  other  com- 

mon soft  pines,  hemlock,  spruce,  and  fir 5,  000+ 

(5)  Soft  poplar,  white  cedar,  and  some  western  soft  pines,  and  firs 4,  000+ 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OK    FAILURE. 


45 


SHEARING 


When,  in  a  structnie  like  that  shown  in  tiQ-.  .'iO,  a  weight  is  pFacedon 
J  and  t  he  tenon  T  by  downward  pressure  breaks  out  the  piece  A  B  (J  D^ 


f 


If^W^. 


116 
*    1 

a 


,v440 


1 
i 

4700 


%*>' 


i  s 
i  2 
3 


»<> 


^^ 


Fig.  31.— Various  forms  of  failure.  A  and  B,  compression  endwise;  C,  shearing  (the  bolt  of  a  stirap 
Iiassod  tlirou;;li  the  morti.sc  and  sheared  out.tDe  endl;  D,  tension.  The  lower  figure  indicates  the 
nunilxTof  pounds  per  square  inch  which  produced  the  failure  in  testa  hy  the  Division  of  Forestry. 
No.  116  (upper  hgure  on  each  piece)  is  white  pine;  Nos.  1,  2,  and  5  are  longleaf  pine,  about  one-fifth 
oatnral  size. 


46  TIMBER. 

this  is  said  to  shear  out  along  the  fiber.  In  the  same  manner,  if  the 
shoulder  A  B  ('  I)  in  fig.  30,  is  pushed  oft"  along  B  I),  it  is  sheared, 
and  if  B  D  and  G  E  are  each  1  inch,  the  surface  thus  sheared  oft'  is 
1  square  inch,  and  the  weight  necessary  to  do  this  re])resents  the 
shearing  strength  per  square  inch  of  the  particular  kind  of  wood.  This 
resistance  is  small  when  compared  to  that  of  tension  and  compression. 
In  general  wet  or  green  wood  shears  about  one-third  more  easily 
than  dry  wood;  a  surface  parallel  to  the  rings  (tangent)  shears  more 
easily  than  one  parallel  to  the  medullary  rays.  The  lighter  conifers 
and  hard  woods  offer  less  resistance  than  the  heavier  kinds,  but  the 
best  of  pine  shears  one-third  to  one  half  more  readily  than  oak  or 
hickory,  indicating  that  great  shearing  strength  is  characteristic  of 
"tough"  woods. 

Resistance  to  shearing  along  the  fiber. 


Per 
square 
inch. 


(1)  Locust,  oak,  hickory,  elm,  maplp,  ash,  birch 

(2)  Sycamore,  loiigleaf,' Cuban,  and  sliort leaf  pine,  and  tamarack 

(3)  Tulip,  basswood,  better  class  (it  iidiilar,  Norway,  loblolly  and  white  pine,  spruce,  red  cedar. 

(4)  Softer  poplar,  hemlock,  white  cedar,  tir 


Pounds. 

'1,000 

600 

400 

2  400 


'  Over.  '  Less  than . 

Note Resistance  to  .shearing,  although  a  most  important  quality  in  wood,  has  not  been  satisfacto- 
rily studied.  The  values  iu  the  above  table,  taken  from  various  authors,  lack  a  reliable  experimental 
basis  and  can  be  considered  as  only  a  little  better  than  guesswork. 

INFLUENCE   OF   WEIGHT   AND   MOISTURE    ON   STRENGTH. 

It  has  been  stated  that  heavy  wood  is  stronger  than  lighter  wood  of 
the  same  kind,  and  that  seasoning  increases  all  forms  of  resistance. 
Let  us  examine  why  this  is  so. 

Since  the  weight  of  dry  wood  depends  on  the  number  of  fibers  and 
the  thickness  of  their  walls,  there  must  be  more  fibers  i)er  square  inch 
of  cross  section  in  the  heavy  than  in  the  light  piece  of  the  same  kiud,^ 
and  it  is  but  natural  that  the  greater  number  of  fibers  should  also  offer 
greater  resistance,  i.  e.,  have  the  greater  strength. 

The  beneficial  influence  of  drying  and  consequent  shrinking  is  two- 
fold: (1 )  In  dry  wood  a  greater  number  of  fibers  occur  per  scpune  inch, 
and  (2)  the  wood  substance  itself,  i.  e.,  the  cell  walls,  become  firmer.  A 
piece  of  green  longleaf  pine,  1  by  1  inch  and  2  inches  long,  is  only  about 
0.94  by  O.OG  inch  and  2  inches  long  when  dry;  its  cross  section  is  10  per 
cent  smaller  than  before,  but  it  still  contains  the  same  number  of  fibers. 
A  dry  piece  1  by  1  inch,  therefore,  contains  10  per  cent  more  fibers  than 
a  green  piece  of  the  same  size,  and  it  is  but  fair  to  suppose  that  its 
resistance  or  strength  is  also  about  10  per  cent  greater. 

The  influence  of  the  second  factor,  though  unquestionably  the  more 
important  one,  is  less  readily  measured.     In  100  cubic  inches  of  wood 


This  imperfect  assumption  is  used  only  for  comparison. 


HARDNESS    OF  WOOD.  47 

substance  the  material  of  the  cell  walls  takes  up  about  50  cubic  inches 
of  water  and  thereby  swells  up,  becoining  about  150  cubic  inches  in 
volume.  In  keeping  with  this  swelling  the  substance  becomes  softer 
and  less  resistant.  In  pine  wood  this  diminution  of  resistance,  accord- 
ing to  experiments,  seems  to  be  about  50  per  cent,  and  the  strength  of 
the  substance  therefore  is  inversely  as  the  degree  of  saturation  or 
solution. 

HARDNESS    AND   SHEARING   ACROSS    THE    (iRAIN. 

When  the  soli<l  steel  plunger  V  in  fig.  32  descends  on  the  piece  of 
wood  ic,  the  first  eflect  is  to  press  it  into  the  wood  of  the  upper  surface 
without  affecting  the  interior  or  lower  part.  The  wood  is  thus  tried 
with  regard  to  its  hardness.  If  a  perforated  steel  plate  is  substituted 
for  the  solid  plate  the  eflect  of  the  plunger  is  at  first  the  same,  but 
soon  the  fibers  some  dis- 
tance from  the  steel  are 
seen  to  bend,  and  finally 
the  ijiece  of  wood  fails 
in  shearing  across  the 
grain.  Hardness  and 
shearing  across  the  grain 

,         1  1    J.     1        mi  Fig.  32.— Test  in  haidufss  and  sheariDg  across  the  grain. 

are  closely  related.     The 

former  is  the  more  important  quality,  however,  since  abrasion  and 
indentation,  the  two  failures  in  hardness,  are  the  common  cause  of 
loosening  of  tenons  in  the  mortise,  of  the  handle  in  the  ax,  etc. 

Heavy  wood  is  harder  than  lighter  wood;  the  wood  of  the  butt, 
therefore,  is  harder  than  that  of  the  top;  the  darker  summer  wood 
harder  than  the  light-colored  spring  wood.  Moisture  softens,  and  sea 
soning,  therefore,  hardens  wood. 

Placing  the  rings  vertical  helps  the  wood  to  resist  indentation. 
Though  harder  wood  resists  saw  and  chisel  more  than  softer  wood,  the 
working  quality  of  the  wood  is  not  always  a  safe  criterion  of  its  hard- 
ness. 

The  following  indicates  the  hardness  of  our  common  woods : 

1.  Very  hard  woods  requiring  over  3,200  pounds  per  square  inch  t^> 
produce  an  indentation  of  one  twentieth  inch :  Hickory,  hard  maple, 
osage  orange,  black  locust,  persimmon,  and  the  best  of  oak,  elm,  and 
hackberry. 

2.  Hard  woods  requiring  over  2,400  pounds  per  S(piare  inch  to  pro- 
duce an  indentation  of  one-twentieth  inch:  Oak,  elm,  ash,  cherry, 
birch,  black  walnut,  beech,  blue  beech,  mulberry,  soft  mai)le,  holly, 
sour  gum,  honey  locust,  coffee  tree,  and  sycamore. 

3.  Middling  hard  woods,  requiring  over  1,000  pounds  per  square  inch 
to  produce  an  indentation  of  one-twentieth  inch:  The  better  qualities 
of  Southern  and  Western  hard  ])ine,  tamarack  and  Douglas  spruce, 
sweet  gum,  and  the  lighter  qualities  of  birch. 


48 


TIMBER. 


4.  Soft  woods  re(iuiring  less  than  1,G00  pounds  per  square  inch  to 
produce  an  indentation  of  one-twentieth  inch:  The  greater  mass  of 
coniferous  wood;  i)ine,  spruce,  tir,  hemlock,  cedar,  cypress,  and  red- 
wood; i)()phir,  tulip,  basswood,  butternut,  chestnut,  buckeye,  and 
catali)a, 

CLEAVAI5IL1TY. 

When  an  ax  is  struck  into  a  piece  of  wood  as  shown  in  fig.  33  the 
cleft  projects  beyond  the  blade  of  the  ax  and  the  process  is  not  one 
of  cutting,  but  of  tension  across  the  grain,  Tlie  ax  presses  on  a 
lever,  ((  &,  while  the  surface  in  which  the  transverse  tension  takes  place 
is  reduced  almost  to  a  line  across  the  stick  at  b.  If  the  wood  is  very 
elastic,  the  cleft  runs  far  ahead  of  the  ax,  the  lever  arm  a  6  is  long,  and 
the  resistance  to  splitting  proportionately  small.  P^lasticity,  therefore, 
helps  splitting,  while  great  shearing  strength,  a  good  measure  for 
transverse  tension  and  hardness  hinder  it. 

Wood  splits  naturally  along  two  normal  planes, 
the  most  readily  along  the  radius,  because  the 
arrangement  of  fibers  and  pith  rays  is  radial,  and 
next  along  the  tangent,  or  with  the  annual  rings, 
because  the  softer  spring  wood  forms  continuous 
])lanes  in  this  direction.  Cleavage  along  the 
radius,  however,  is  from  50  to  100  per  cent  easier, 
and  only  in  case  of  cross  grain,  etc.,  the  cleavage 
along  the  ring  becomes  the  easier.  In  the  wood 
of  conifers,  wood  fibers  and  pith  rays  are  very  reg- 
ular, the  former  in  i^erfect  radial  series  or  rows, 
and  cleavage  is,  therefore,  very  easy  in  this  direc- 
tion. The  same  is  brought  about  in  the  oak  by  the 
very  high  pith  rays,  but  where  they  are  thick  and  low,  as  in  sycamore, 
and  generally  in  the  butt  cuts  and  about  knots,  they  impede  cleavage 
by  causing  a  greater  irregularity  in  the  course  of  the  wood  fibers.  The 
greater  the  contrast  of  spring  and  summer  wood,  the  easier  the  cleav- 
age tangentially  or  in  the  direction  of  the  rings.  This  is  e>pecially 
nuirked  in  conifers  and  also  in  woods  like  oak,  ash,  and  elm,  where  the 
spring  wood  appears  as  a  continuous  series  of  large  pores.  Very  slow 
growth  intluences  tangential  cleavage,  narrow-ringed  oak  breaks  out 
and  splits  less  regularly  even  in  a  radial  direction;  in  conifers,  however, 
this  difference  scarcely  exists.  Weight  of  wood  aflfects  the  cleavage 
but  little;  in  heavy  wood  the  entraiu^e  of  the  ax,  to  be  sure,  is  resisted 
with  more  force,  but  the  greater  elasticity  of  the  wood,  on  the  other 
hand,  counterbalances  this  resistance.  Irregularities  in  the  course  of 
the  fibers,  whether  spiral  growth,  crossgrain,  or  in  form  of  knots,  all 
aid  in  resisting  cleavage.  Knotty  bolts  are  split  more  easily  from 
the  upper  end,  since  the  cleft  then  runs  around  the  knots  (see  p.  23). 
Moisture  softens  the  wood  and  reduces  lateral  adhesion,  and  therefore 
wood  splits  more  easily  when  green  than  when  dry. 


Fig.  33.— Cleavage. 


WHAT   IS  TOUGH   WOOD?  49 

FLEXIBILITY. 

Pine  is  brittle,  hickory  is  flexible;  tbe  former  breaks,  the  latter 
bends.  Bein<;-  tbe  opposite  of  stiffness,  want  of  stittucss  would  seem  to 
indicate  flexibility.  This,  however,  is  only  partly  true;  hickory  and 
ash  are  stiff  and  yet  among  the  most  flexible  of  woods.  Their  small 
dimensions  cause  shavings  and  tliin  strands  of  most  woods  to  appear 
pliable.  For  this  reason  the  pliable,  twisted  wicker  willow  is  not  a  fair 
measure  of  the  flexibility  of  the  wood  of  this  species.  Generally  hard 
woods  are  more  flexible  than  conifers,  wood  of  the  butt  surijassing 
ill  this  respect  that  of  the  main  part  of  the  stem,  the  latter  being 
usually  superior  to  that  of  the  limbs.  Moisture  softens  wood  and 
thereby  increases  its  flexibility.  Knots  and  crossgrain  diminish  flexi- 
bility, but  the  irregular  structure  of  elm,  ash,  etc.  (particularly  the 
arrangement  of  bodies  of  extremely  firm  fibers,  like  so  many  strands, 
among  the  softer  tissue,  as  well  as  the  interlacement  of  fibers,  due  to 
post-cambial  growth),  favorably  influences  the  flexibility  of  these  woods. 

TOUGHNESS. 

So  far  the  load  by  which  the  exhibition  of  the  various  kinds  of 
strength  in  compression,  tension,  cross  bending,  etc.,  was  produced  has 
always  been  assumed  as  applied  slowly  and  gradually.  When  a  wagon 
goes  lumbering  along  a  cobble  pavement  the  load  on  the  spokes  is  not 
thus  applied.  Every  stone  deals  the  wheel  a  blow,  and  a  mile's  journey 
means  many  thousand  blows  to  every  wheel  rim  and  spoke.  In  chop- 
ping, the  ax  handle  is  jarred  and  a  handle  made  of  pine  wood,  which 
shears  easily  along  the  fiber,  would  soon  be  shattered  to  pieces.  Loads 
thus  applied  are  "shocks,"  and  resistance  to  this  form  of  loading 
rei^uires  a  combination  of  various  kinds  of  strength  possessed  only  by 
"  tough"  woods.  Toughness  is  a  familiar  word  to  woodworkers,  and 
yet  is  rarely  defined.  Tough  wood  must  be  both  strong  and  pliable. 
Thus  a  willow  is  not  tough  when  dry;  it  is  weak  and  brittle,  and  re- 
quires, notwithstanding  its  small  lateral  dimensions,  to  be  moistened 
and  twisted  or  sheared  into  still  smaller  strands  so  that  its  fibers  are  sub- 
jected almost  exclusively  to  tension,  if  great  deflection  and  great 
strength  are  to  be  combined  (handles  of  wicker  baskets).  Hickory  is 
both  strong  and  pliable;  in  the  dimensions  of  a  willow  twig  it  can  be 
used  almost  like  a  rope.  The  term  "tough,"  therefore,  is  properly 
ai)plied  to  woods  like  hickory  and  elm  and  improperly  to  willow. 

Judging  from  the  behavior  of  elm  and  hickory,  wood  may  be  pro- 
nounced "tough"  if  it  offers  great  resistance  to — 

(1)  Longitudinal  shearing  over  1,000  pounds  per  square  inch, 

(2)  Tension  over  16,000  pounds  per  square  inch, 

and  permits,  when  tested  dry,  of  an  aggregate  <listortioii  in  compres- 
sion and  tension  amounting  to  not  less  than  3  per  cent. 

3521— i^o.  10 i 


50  TIMBER. 

For  instance,  of  a  piece  of  diy  hickory  {H.  alha)  we  may  expect — 

Strength  in  shearing pounds..      1,  2(X) 

Strength  in  tension <lo 25,  000 

Distortion  in  tension per  cent . .       2.  03 

Distortion  in  compression do 1.55 

Total  distortion do 3.  58 

PRACTICAL   CONCLUSIONS. 

From  the  foregoing  considerations  a  few  vahiable  facts,  mostly  famil- 
iar to  tho  thoughtful  woodworker,  may  be  deduced: 

In  framing,  where  light  and  stiff  timber  is  wanted,  the  conifers 
excel ;  where  heavy  but  steady  loads  are  to  be  supported,  the  heavier 
conifers,  hard  pine,  spruce,  Douglas  spruce,  etc.,  answer  as  well  as 
hard  woods,  which  are  costlier  and  heavier  for  the  same  amount  of  stiff- 
ness. On  the  other  hand,  if  small  dimensions  must  be  used,  and  espe- 
cially if  mo\ing  loads  are  to  be  sustained,  hard  woods  are  safest,  and 
in  all  cases  where  the  load  is  applied  in  form  of  "shocks"  or  jars,  only 
the  tougher  hard  woods  should  be  employed.  The  heavier  wood  sur- 
passes the  lighter  of  the  same  species  in  all  kinds  of  strength,  so  that 
the  weight  of  dry  wood  and  the  structural  features  indicative  of  weight 
may  be  used  as  safe  signs  in  selecting  timber  for  strength. 

In  limping  wood  it  is  better,  though  more  wasteful,  to  split  than  to 
saw,  because  it  insures  straight  grain  and  enables  a  more  perfect  sea- 
soning. 

For  so  iced  stocJc  the  method  of  "rift"  or  "quarter"  sawing,  which  has 
so  rapidly  gained  favor  during  the  last  decade,  deserves  every  encour- 
agement. It  permits  of  better  selection  and  of  more  advantageous 
disposition  of  tl«e  wood;  rift-sawed  lumber  is  stronger,  wears  better, 
seasons  well,  and  is  least  subject  to  "working"  or  warping. 

All  hardwood  material  which  chccls  or  warps  badly  during  seasoning 
should  be  reduced  to  the  smallest  practicable  size  before  drying,  to 
avoid  the  injuries  involved  in  this  process;  and  wood  once  seasoned 
should  never  again  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  since  all  injuries  due  to 
seasoning  are  thereby  aggravated.  Seasoning  increases  the  strength 
of  wood  in  every  respect,  and  it  is  therefore  of  great  importance  to  pro- 
tect wooden  structures,  bearing  heavy  weights,  against  moisture. 

Knota,  like  crossgrain  and  other  defects,  reduce  the  strength  of 
timber.  Where  choice  exists,  the  knotiyiside  of  the  joist  should  be 
placed  uppermost,!,  e.,  should  be  used  in  compression,. 

Season  checl's  in  timber  are  always  a  source  of  weakness;  they  are 
more  injurious  on  the  vertical  than  on  the  horizontal  faces  of  a  stringer 
or  joist,  and  their-effect  continues  even  when  they  have  closed  up,  as 
many  do,  and  are  no  longer  visible. 

Rafted  timber,  Jdlii  dried  or  steamed  hnnher  are,  as  far  as  our  present 
knowledge  extends,  as  strong  as  other  kinds,  and  wherever  any  of  these 


COMPOSITION    OF    WOOD.  51 

processes  aids  in  a  more  imiform  or  perfect  seasoning,  it  increases  the 
strength  ot  the  material. 

PiujLlLliled"'  for  turpentine  is  as  strong'  as  "unbled." 
Time  of  fell  in  <j,  whether  season  of  the  year  or  ]»liase  of  the  moon,  does 
not  intluence  strength,  except  that  su^imer-  feHeil  hardwood  rarely  sea- 
sons as  perfectly  as  that  felled  in  the  fall,  and  to  this  extent  an  indirect 
iiifluem-e  may  be  observed,  as  well  as  by  the  fact  that  fungi  and  insects 
ihave  a  JiSltei:  opportunity  for  developing. 

Warm  countries  and  sunny  exposures  generally  produce  heavier  and 
stronger  timber,  and  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  species 
also  improve  its  quality.  But  exceptions  occur;  neither  fast  nor  slow 
growth  is  an  nifallibJii  sign  of  strong  wood,  and  it  is  the  character  of 
the  annual  ring,  rather  than  its  width,  and  particularly  the  proportion 
of  summer  wood,  which  determines  the  quality  of  the  material. 

VI.— CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD. 

Wood  dried  at  300°  F.  is  composed  of  over  91)  per  cent  of  organic  and 
less  than  1  per  cent  of  inorganic  matter;  the  latter  remains  as  ashes 
when  wood  is  burned. 

Wood  consists  of  a  skeleton  of  cellulose,  permeated  by  a  mixture  of 
other  organic  substances,  collectively  designated  by  the  name  of  liguin, 
and  particles  of  mineral  matter  or  ashes. 

Cellulose  is  the  common  substance  of  which  plant  cells  form  their 
cases  or  walls;  in  tiax,  the  entire  fiber  is  almost  pure  cellulose,  but  the 
amount  of  cellulose  obtained  from  wood,  by  the  common  processes, 
rarely  exceeds  one-half  of  its  dry  weight.  Cellulose  is  identical  in 
composition  with  starch,  but  unlike  the  latter  it  resists  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation, though  the  plants  themselves,  as  well  as  decay-producing 
fungi,  are  able  to  reconvert  it  into  starch,  from  which  it  seems  origi- 
nally derived,  and  also  to  change  it  into  various  forms  of  sugar.^  Lig- 
nin  is  as  yet  a  chemical  puzzle.  Th^  substances  forming  it  are  carbo- 
hydrates like  cellulose  itself,  but  of  slightly  different  proportions  and 
distinguished  by  greater  solubility  in  acids,  and  by  other  chemical 
properties. 

In  100  ])ounds  of  wood  (dried  at  300°  F.)  and  of  cellulose  the  follow- 
ing proportions  are  found : 

I     W^ood.        Cellulose. 


Carbon  ... 
Hydrogen 
Oxygen... 


Poundi.  Pounds. 
40  4i.4 

6  6.1 

44  49.3 


I  Chemists  have  succeeded  in  prodncing  reconversion  into  grape  sugar,  and  though 
the  methods  thus  far  employed  are  expensive,  it  is  to  he  expected  that  in  the  near 
future  wood  will  hecome  the  principal  !\ource  of  both  vinegar  and  alcohol. 


52  TIMBER. 

This  composition  of  wood  is  fairly  uniform  for  different  species. 

At  ordinary  temperatures  wood  is  a  very  stable  compound:  both  in 
air  ami  under  water  it  remains  the  same  for  centuries,  and  oidy  when 
living  organisms  attack  it  with  their  strong  solvents  and  convertants  do 
change  and  decay  set  in. 

Lleated  to  300°  F,  wood  gives  off  (mly  water,  though  some  slight 
chemical  changes  are  noticeable  even  at  this  temperature.  If  the  heat 
is  increased,  gases  of  pungent  odor  and  taste  are  evolved,  and  if  the  * 
temi>erature  is  suthciently  raised,  the  gases  are  ignited,  forming  the 
Hanie  of  the  fire,  while  the  remaining  solid  i)art  glows  like  an  ignited 
charc(»al,  giving  much  heat,  but  no  flame.  The  amount  of  heat  pro- 
duced by  wood  varies.  If  first  dried  at  300°  F.,  100  pounds  of  i)()plar 
wood  should  give  as  much  heat  as  100  jjounds  of  hickory.  In  the 
natural  state,  however,  this  is  not  the  case.  , 

The  beneficial  effect  of  thorough  seasoning  for  firewood  appears  from 
the  following  consideration: 

One  hundred  pounds  of  wood  as  sold  in  the  wood  yards  contains  in 
round  numbers  25  pounds  of  water,  74  pounds  of  wood,  and  1  pound 
of  ashes. 

The  74  ])ounds  of  wood  are  composed  of  ^7  pounds  of  carbon,  4.4 
pounds  of  hydrogen,  and  32  pounds  of  oxygen. 

In  burning  (which  is  a  i)rocess  of  oxidation)  4  i)ounds  of  hydrogen 
,j.i  are  already  combined  with  32  pounds  of  oxygen  and  there  are  only  tlie 
37  pounds  of  carbon  and  0.4  pounds  of  hydrogen  available  in  heat  pro 
;luction.  Thus  only  about  one-half  the  weight  of  the  wood  substance 
itsell  is  heat  producing  while  every  pound  of  water  combined  in  the 
Xf{1\jA  wood  requires  about  000  units  of  heat  to  evaporate  it,  and  thus  diniin 
ishes  the  value  of  the  Avood  as  fuel.  TTence  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances  100  i)ounds  of  green  wood  {iJO  per  cent  moisture)  fur- 
nishes about  150,000  units '  of  heat ;  100  pounds  of  half  dry  (30  per  cent 
moisture)  about  230,0(H)  units:  loO  pounds  of  air  dry  (20  per  cent  mois- 
ture) about  280,000  units;  lOo  hundred  pounds  of  air  dry  (10  per  cent 
moisture)  about  320,000  units:  100  pounds  of  kiln-dry  (2  per  cent  mois- 
ture) about  350,000  units. 

In  the  ordinary  stove  or  other  snuill  apparatus  the  evil  effect  of 
moisture  in  the  wood  is  very  much  increased  since  combustion  is  mate- 
rially interfered  with. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  ordinary  charcoal  furnishes  700,000  units  of 
heat  but  the  same  quantity  of  charcoal  produced  at  a  tenijjerature  of 
2,000°  F.  furnishes  nearly  800,000  units  of  heat. 

Conifers  and  the  lighter  hard  woods  produce  more  flame,  while  the 
heavy  hard  woods  furnish  a  good  bed  of  live  coal  and  exceed  the  former 
by  25  to  30  per  cent  in  ])ro(hjction  of  heat  with  ordinary  appliances. 


'A  unit  of  heat   in  this  rase  is  tlif  imioinit  of  heat  wiiich  raises  the  teuiperature 
of  1  pound  of  water  by  1.8  '  F.  or  1^  C 


DRY    DISTILLATION    AND    CHARCOAL.  53 

Heated  in  a  dosed  ohainber  or  covered  with  earth,  as  in  charcoal 
pits,  the  wood  is  prevented  from  bnrning  and  a  variety  of  changes 
occur,  depending-  on  the  rate  of  heating.  If  the  temperature  is  raised 
gradually  so  that  tlie  wood  is  heated  sev^eral  hours  before  a  temperature 
of  (KMP  F.  is  reached  the  process  is  called  dry  distillation.  I  n  this  proc- 
ess the  wood  is  destroyed.  It  forms  at  first  "red"  or '' blown"  coal, 
still  resembling  wood,  and  finally  charcoal  proper.  This  coal  is  darker, 
heavier,  conducts  heat  and  electricity  better,  requires  a  greater  heat  to 
ignite,  and  ])roduces  more  heat  in  burning  the  higher  the  temperature 
under  which  it  is  formed.  q,yp ,'■ 

One  hundred  pouiuls  of  wood  (dried  at  300°  F.)  leaves  only  about  30    ^ 
pounds  of  charcoal.     In  common  ])ractice  much  less  charcoal  jj^  to  ^^^  m  .u 
per  cent)  is  produced.     In  this  change  from  wood  to  coal  the  volume  is  "^ '" 
diiuinished  by  about  one-half,  so  that  a  cord  of  wood  which  contains^  (>  7 
about  100  cubic  feet  of  wood  solid  would  be  converted  into  50  cubic 
feet  at  best. 

Of  the  70  pounds  of  gaseous  products  which  100  pounds  of  wood 
lose,  during  coaling,  in  being  heated  up  to  700^  F.,  about  63  ])oundsL' 
become  volatile  before  the  temperature  of  550°  P.  is  reached. 

If  condensed  in  a  cooler,  about  three-fourths  of  the  G3  pounds  of 
volatile  matter  first  evolved  is  found  to  be  wood  vinegar,  from  which 
about  4  pounds  of  pure  acetic  acid,  the  only  source  of  perfectly  pure 
vinegar,  is  obtained.  Besides  acetic  acid,  the  liquid  contains  wood 
spirits  and  a  quantity  of  various  allied  substances. 

After  the  first  stage  of  dry  distillation,  a  large  part  of  the  i)roducts 
developed  can  not  be  liquefied  in  the  ordinary  cooler.  They  are  gases 
like  the  illuminating  gas,  mostly  belonging  to  the  marsh  gas  series; 
they  lack  oxygen  and  thus  show  that  the  available  oxygen  has  been 
nearly  exhausted  in  the  preceding  part  of  the  process.  Products  of 
the  later  stages  are  tars  and  heavy  oils,  volatile  ordy  at  high  tem- 
peratures. Here  also  belong  the  substances  known  collectively  as  wood 
creosote,  employed  as  antiseptics  in  wood  impregnation. 

Warmed  in  dilute  nitric  acid  with  a  little  chlorate  of  potash,  the  cells 
of  a  piece  of  wood  may  be  separated,  each  cell  remains  intact,  l)ut  its 
wall  is  reduced  in  thickness  and  material;  thelignin  substances  being- 
dissolved  out,  onlj'  the  cellulose  is  left.  In  commercial  cellulose  manu- 
facture, soda,  sulphates,  and  of  late  chiefly  sulphites  are  substituted 
for  the  nitric  acid.  The  wood  is  chipped,  boiled  in  the  respective  solu- 
tion under  high  pressures,  the  residue  is  washed,  and  the  remaining 
cellulose  bleached  and  ready  for  use.  As  a  matter  of  economy  the 
residual  liquid  is  evaporated  and  the  soda  used  over  again. 

When  resinous  wood,  ''fat  pine,"  "  lightwood,"  such  as  the- knots 
and  stumps  of  longleaf,  pitch,  and  other  pines,  is  heated  in  a  kiln  or 
retort,  the  resins  ooze  out,  are  collected,  and  in  distillation  with  steam 
yield  turpentine  and  rosin.  The  resins  and  their  components  vary  with 
the  species;  the  balsam  of  fir  js  limpid,  its  turpentine  remains  clear  on 


54  TIMBER. 

exposure;  the  resin  of  piues  is  very  viscid,  their  turpentines  readily 
oxidize  and  darken  when  brought  in  contact  witli  air.  Kesiiis  are 
gathered  more  commonly  either  from  cracks,  such  as  "wind"  and  ''ring- 
.shakes,"  as  in  the  case  of  larch  and  fir  (Venetian  turpentine),  or  else 
from  wounds  made  es]){'cially  for  this  purpose,  as  in  the  case  of  naval 
stores  gathered  from  pines.  This  latter  process  is  known  as  "bleed- 
ing," "tapping,"  or  "orcharding,"  and  is  at  present  the  principal 
method  of  obtaining  turpentines  and  rosins. 

On  burning  resinous  wood,  wood  tar,  etc.,  in  a  smoldering  tire,  soot 
is  deposited  on  the  walls  and  partitions  of  the  specially  constructed 
soot  pit.  It  is  then  collected,  but  must  be  freed  of  various  products  of 
dry  distillation,  by  carefully  heating  to  red  heat  before  it  becomes  the 
lampblack  used  in  printers'  ink  and  otherwise  much  employed  in  the 
arts. 

Many  kinds  of  wood  and  the  bark  of  most  trees  contain  tannin.  To 
serve  in  tanning  the  bark  must  contain  at  least  3  per  cent  of  tannin: 
the  kinds  mostly  used  vary  from  5  to  15  per  cent,  and  even  the  best 
probably  never  furnish  over  20  per  cent  in  the  average.  The  use  of 
tan  bark  involves  considerable  disadvantages.  It  is  difficult  to  dry  and 
preserve,  very  liable  to  mold,  bulky,  and  therefore  expensive  to  ship 
and  store,  and  very  variable  in  the  amount  of  tannin  which  it  contains. 

To  avoid  these  difficulties  the  tannic  compounds  are,  in  recent  times, 
leached  out  of  the  finely  ground  bark  and  wood,  condensed  by  evapo 
ration,  and  shipped  as  extracts  containing  80  to  90  per  cent  of  tannin. 

The  nmnutacture  of  pulp  as  well  as  the  production  of  fiber  capable 
of  being  spun  and  woven,  are  also  technological  uses  of  wood,  which 
rely  ])artly  upon  chemical  reactions. 

VII.— DURABILITY  AND  DECAY. 

All  wood  is  equally  durable  under  certain  conditions.  Kept  dry  or 
submerged,  it  lasts  indefinitely.  Pieces  of  pine  have  been  unearthed 
in  Illinois  which  have  lain  buried  GO  or  more  feet  deep  for  many  cen- 
turies. Deposits  of  sound  logs  of  oak,  buried  for  unknown  ages,  have 
been  unearthed  in  Bavaria:  i)arts  of  the  piles  of  the  lake  dwellers, 
driven  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago,  are  still  intact. 

On  the  radial  section  of  a  piece  of  pine  timber,  with  one  of  the 
shelf  like,  fungus  growths,  as  shown  in  fig.  34,  both  bark  and  wood 
are  seen  to  be  att'ected.  A  small  ])article  of  the  half-decayed  wood  i)ie- 
sents  pictures  like  that  of  fig.  Ao.  Slender,  branching  thieads  are 
seen  to  attach  themselves  closely  to  the  walls  of  the  cells,  and  to  juerce 
these  in  all  directions.  Thus  these  little  threads  of  fungus  mycelium 
soon  form  a  perfect  network  in  the  wood,  and  as  they  increase  in  num- 
ber they  dissolve  the  walls,  and  convert  the  wood  substance  and  cell 
contents  into  sugar  like  food  for  their  own  consumption.  In  some  cases 
it  is  the  woody  cell  wall  alone  that  is  attacked.     In  other  cases  they 


CAUSES    OF    DECAY. 


^5 


couflne  themselves  to  eating  up  the  starch  found  in  the  cells,  as  shown 

in  lig.  .'>fi,  and  nieiely  leave  a  stain  (bluing  of  lumber).     In  all  cases 

of  decay  we  tiud  the  vegetative  bodies,  these  sh'iuler  threads  of  fungi, 

res4)ousible  for  the  mischief.    These  fine  threads 

are  the  vegetative  body  of  the  fungus,  the  little 

shelf  is  its  fruiting  body,  on  which  it  produces 

myriads  of  little  spores  (the  seeds  of  fungi). 

Some  fungi  attack  only  conifers,  others  hard 

woods;  many  are  confined  to  one  species  of  tree 

and  perhaps  no  one  attacks  all  kinds  of  wood. 

One  kind  produces  "red  rot,"  others  "bluing." 

In  one  case  the  decayed  tracts  are  tubular, 
and  in  the  direction  of 
the  fibers  the  wood  is 
"peggy."  In  other  cases 
no  particular  shapes  are 
discernible. 

Cutting  off  a  disk  of 
loblolly  pine,  washing  it, 
and  then  laying  it  in  a 
clean,  shady  place  in  the 
sawmill,  its  sapwood  will 
be  found  stained  in  a  few 
days.  Nor  is  this  mis- 
chief confined  to  the  sur- 
face ;  it  penetrates  the  sapwood  of  the  entire  disk. 
From  this  it  appears  that  the  spores  must  have 
been  in  the  air  about  the  mill,  and  also  that  their 
germination  and  the  growth  of  the  threads  or 
mycelium  is  exceedinglj^  rapid.  (Watching  the 
progress  of  mold  on  a  j^iece  of  bread  teaches  the 
same  thing.)  Placing  a  fresh  piece  of  sapAvood 
on  ice,  another  into  a  dry  kiln,  and  soaking  a  few 
others  in  solutions  of  corrosive  sublimate  (mer- 
curic chloride)  and  other  similar  salts,  we  learn 
that  the  fungus  growth  is  retarded  by  cold,  pre- 
vented and  killed  by  temperatures  over  150^  F., 
and  that  salts  of  mercury,  etc.,  have  the  same 
effect.  The  fact  that  seasoned  pieces  if  exposed 
are  not  so  readily  atta(;ke(l  by  fungi  shows  that 
the  moisture  in  air-dry  wood  is  insufficient  for 
fungus  growth. 

From  this  it  appears  that  warmth,  preferably 

between  60°  and  100°  F.,  combined  with  abundance  of  moisture  (but 

not  immersion),  is  the  most  imj>ortant  condition  favoring  decay,  and 

that  the  defense  lies  in  the  proper  regulation  or  avoidance  of  these 


Fig.  ?4.— ''Shelf  "  fungus  on  the 
st«mofapine.  (Hartig.)  a, 
sound  -wood;  b,  resinous 
"light"  wood;  c,  partly  de- 
cayed wood  or  punk  ;  d,  layer 
of  living  spore  tubes;  c,  old 
lilled  up  spore  tubes;/,  fluted 
upper  surface  of  the  fruiting 
body  of  the  fungus,  which 
gets  its  food  through  a  great 
number  of  flue  threads  (the 
mycelium),  its  vegetative  tis- 
sue penetrating  the  wood  and 
causing  its  decay. 


Fig.  35.— Fungus  threads  in 
pine  wood.  (Hartig.)  a, 
cell  wall  of  the  wood  fibers; 
b,  bordered  pits  of  these 
fibers;  c,  thread  of  myce- 
linmof thefungus;  d, holes 
in  the  cell  walls  made  by 
the  fungus  threads,  which 
gradually  dissolve  the 
walls  as  shown  at  e,  and 
thus  break  down  the  wood 
structure. 


56 


TIMBER. 


conditions,  or  else  in  the  use  of  poisonous  salts,  which  prevent  the  prop- 
agation of  fungi. 

It  is  also  ap[)aieat,  therefore,  why  wood  decays  faster  in  Alabama 
than  in  Wisconsin,  faster  in  the  swamps  than  on  the  plains,  and  why 
the  i)resenee  of  large  quantities  of  decaying  wood  about  the  yard, 
constanrly  producing  fresh  supplies  of  spores,  stimulates  decay.  Cov- 
ering with  tar  or  impregnating 
with  creosote,  salts  of  mercury, 
copper,  etc.,  enables  even  sap- 
wood  to  last  under  the  most  try- 
ing conditions.  Contact  with  the 
groun<l  assures  most  favorable 
moisture  conditioiis  for  fungus 
growth,  and  the  higher  tempera- 
tures near  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  together  with  the  ever- 
present  supply  of  spores,  cause 
rot  in  a  post  to  start  at  the  sur- 
face more  readily  than  30  inches 
below. 

The  use  of  means  to  prevent 
decay  is  therefore  desirable  where 
timber  is  placed  in  positions  favor- 
able to  fungus  growth,  as  in  rail- 
way ties;  and  all  joists  and  timber 
in  contact  with  damp  brick  walls, 
as  also  all  building  material  whose 
I)erfect  seasoning  is  prevented  by 
the  absence  of  proper  circulation 
of  air,  should  be  specially  pro- 
tected. In  the  former  cases  it  is 
economy  to  apply  preservative 
processes;  in  the  latter  a  sanitary 
necessity.  Wood  covered  with 
paint,  etc.,  before  it  is  perfectly 
seasoned,  falls  a  prey  to  ''dry 
rot;"  the  fungus  finds  abundance 
of  moisture,  and  the  protection 
intended  for  the  wood  protects  its 


Fio.  3G.— Cells  of  maple  wood  attacked  by  fungus 
threads  (Nectria  cinnabarina  Mayer).  Sectiou 
of  three  wood  fibers  showing  the  threads  of  the 
fungus  branching  in  their  cavities  and  consum- 
ing the  starch  store. I  m  these  cells,  o,  interior 
or  cavity  of  cells;  b,  threads  of  the  fungus;  c, 
partly  <lostroyed  starch  grains ;  rf,  dead  jiortions 
of  tlie  fungus  thread  together  with  dc'bris;  e, 
holes  bored  by  the  fungus  tli  rough  t  lie  cell  walls; 
/S,  starch  grains  just  being  attacked. 


enemy,  the  fungus.  Since  char- 
coal resists  the  solvents  of  fungi,  charring  the  outer  parts  of  posts 
makes,  if  well  done,  namely,  so  as  not  to  open  checks  into  the  interior 
of  the  wood,  a  very  tine  protection. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  only  the  second  great  factor  of  decay, 
i.  e.,  the  moisture  condition,  can  be  controlled. 


HOW   TO    INCREASE    DURABILITY.  57 

Perfect  seasoning,  preferably  kiln-dryinj;-,  before  using,  and  protec- 
tion against  the  entrance  of  moisture  by  tar,  ])aints,  and  otlier  covers, 
when  put  in  place,  i>rolong  the  life  of  wooden  stru(;tures.  Where  such 
a  covering  is  too  expensive,  good  ventilation  at  least  is  necessary. 
Contact  surfaces,  where  timber  rests  on  timber  or  brick,  should  in  all 
cases  be  especially  i)rotected. 

Different  si)ecies  differ  in  their  resistance  to  decay.  Cedar  is  more 
durable  than  pine  and  oak  better  than  beech,  but  in  most  cases  the  con- 
ditions of  warmth  and  moisture  in  particular  locations  have  so  much 
to  do  with  durability  that  often  an  oak  post  outlasts  one  of  cedar,  even 
in  the  same  line  of  fence,  and  predictions  of  durability  become  mere 
guesswork. 

Containing  r.iore  ready-made  food,  and  informs  acceptable  to  a  great 
number  of  different  kinds  of  fungi,  the  sapwood  is  more  subject  to 
decay  than  the  heartwood,  doubly  so  where  the  latter  is  protected  by 
resinous  substances,  as  in  pine  and  cedar.  Several  months  of  immer 
sion  improves  the  durability  of  sapwood,  but  only  impregnation  with 
preservative  salts  seems  to  render  it  perfectly  secure.  Once  attacked 
by  fungi,  wood  becomes  predisposed  to  further  decay. 

Wood  cut  in  the  fall  is  more  durable  than  that  cut  in  summer,  only 
because  the  low  temperature  of  the  winter  season  prevents  the  attack 
of  tlie  fungi,  and  the  wood  is  thus  given  a  fair  chance  to  dry.  Usually 
summer-felled  wood,  on  account  of  prevalent  high  temperature  and 
exposure  to  sun,  checks  more  than  winter-felled  wood,  and  since  all 
season  checks  favor  the  entrance  of  both  moisture  and  fungus,  they 
facilitate  destruction.  Where  summer  felled  wood  is  worked  up  at 
once  and  protected  by  kiln-drying  no  difference  exists.  The  phases  of 
the  moon  have  no  influence  whatever  on  durability. 

In  sawing  timber  much  of  the  wood  is  bastard  cut;  at  these  places 
water  enters  much  more  readily,  and  for  this  reason  split  and 
hewn  timber  and  ties  generally  resist  decay  perhai)s  better  than  if 
sawed. 

The  attacks  of  beetles,  as  well  as  those  of  the  shipworm,  can  not  here 
be  considered ;  like  chisel  or  saw  they  are  mechanical  injuries  against 
which  none  of  our  woods  are  proof. 

Range  of  durability  in  railroad  ties. 

Years.  Years. 


White  oak  and  chestnut  oak 8 

Chestnut 8 

Black  h)cust 10 


Redwood 12 

Cypress  and  red  cedar 10 

Tamarack 7  to  8 


Cherry,  black  walnut,  locust 7|  Lougleaf  pine 6 

Elm 6to7  j  Hemlock 4  to  6 

Red  and  black  oaks 4  to  5  i  Spruce 5 

Ash,  beech,  maple 4  | 

The  durability  of  wood,  exposed  to  the  changes  of  the  weather,  and 
where  painting,  after  thorough  seasoning,  is  impracticable,  is  increased 


58  TIMBER. 

by  impregnating  it  with  various  salts  or  other  chemicals,  which  prevent 
the  fungus  from  feeding  on  the  wood.  The  wood  is  first  steamed,  to 
open  the  pores  and  remove  the  hardened  surface  (-oatiug  of  sap  and 
dirt,  and  a  liquid  solution  of  the  j)reservative  material  is  then  injected 
with  the  assistance  of  heat  and  pressure. 

The  most  efficient  fluids  used  on  a  large  scale  are  bichloride  of  zinc 
and  (leovsote,  or  both  combined.  The  "life"  of  railroad  ties  is  thereby 
increased  to  twice  and  three  times  its  natural  duration. 


HOW  TO  DISTINGUISH  THE  DIFFERHNT  KINDS  OF  WOOD 

By  B.  Fj.  Fkrnow  and  Fiuhkrt  Roth. 

The  carpenter  or  other  artisan  who  handles  different  woods  becomes 
familiar  with  those  he  employs  frequently,  and  learns  to  distinguish 
tliem  through  this  familiarity,  without  usually  being-  able  to  state  the 
points  of  distinction.  If  a  wood  comes  before  him  with  which  he  is 
not  familiar,  he  has,  of  course,  no  means  of  determining  what  it  is, 
and  it  is  possible  to  select  pieces  even  of  those  with  which  he  is  well 
acquainted,  different  in  appearance  from  the  general  run,  that  will  make 
him  doubtful  as  to  their  identification.  Furthermore,  he  may  distin- 
guish between  hard  and  soft  pines,  between  oak  and  ash,  or  between 
maple  and  birch,  which  are  characteristically  different ;  but  when  it 
comes  to  distinguishing  between  the  several  species  of  pine  or  oak  or 
ash  or  birch,  the  absence  of  readily  recognizable  characters  is  such  that 
but  few  practitioners  can  be  relied  ui)ou  to  do  it.  Hence,  in  the  market 
we  find  many  species  mixed  and  sold  indiscriminately. 

To  identify  the  different  woods  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  knowledge 
of  the  definite,  invariable  differences  in  their  structure,  besides  tbat  of 
the  often  variable  differences  in  their  appearance.  These  structural 
differences  may  either  be  readily  visible  to  the  naked  eye  or  with  a 
magnifier,  or  they  may  require  a  microscopical  examination.  In  some 
cases  such  an  examination  can  not  be  dispensed  with,  if  we  would  make 
absolutely  sure.  There  are  instances,  as  in  the  pines,  where  even  our 
knowledge  of  the  minute  anatomical  structure  is  not  yet  sufficient  to 
make  a  sure  identification. 

In  the  following  key  an  attempt  has  been  made — the  first,  so  far  as  we 
know,  in  English  literature — to  give  a  synoptical  view  of  the  distinctive 
features  of  the  commoner  woods  of  the  United  States,  which  are  found 
in  the  markets  or  are  used  in  the  arts.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
distinction  has  been  carried  in  most  instances  no  further  than  to  genera 
or  classes  of  woods,  since  the  distinction  of  species  can  hardly  be  accom- 
plished without  elaborate  microscopic  study,  and  also  that,  as  far  as 
l)ossible,  reliance  has  been  placed  only  on  such  characteristics  as  can 
be  distinguished  with  the  naked  eye  or  a  simple  magnifying  glass,  in 
order  to  make  the  key  useful  to  the  largest  number.  Recourse  has 
also  been  taken  for  the  same  reason  to  the  less  reliable  and  more  varia- 
ble general  external  appearance,  color,  taste,  smell,  weight,  etc. 

The  user  of  the  key  must,  however,  realize  that  external  ai^pearance, 
such,  for  example,  as  color,  is  not  only  very  variable  but  also  very  dif- 
ficult to  describe,  individual  observers  differing  especially  in  seeing  and 

69 


60  TIMBER. 

describincT  shades  of  color.  The  same  is  true  of  statements  of  size, 
wheu  rehitive,  and  not  accurately  measured,  while  weight  and  hard- 
ness can  perhaps  be  more  readily  approximated.  Whether  any  feature 
is  distinctly  or  only  indistinctly  seen  will  also  depend  somewhat  on 
individual  eyesight,  ()i)inion,  or  i)ractice.  In  some  cases  the  resemblance 
of  different  species  is  so  close  that  only  one  other  expedient  will  make 
distinction  possible,  namely,  a  knowledge  of  the  region  from  which  the 
wood  has  come.  We  know,  for  instance,  that  no  longlcaf  pine  grows 
in  Arkansas  and  that  no  white  pine  can  come  from  Alabama,  and  we 
can  separate  the  white  cedar,  giant  arbor  vitie  of  the  West  and  the 
arbor  vita?  of  the  Northeast,  only  by  the  difference  of  the  locality  from 
which  the  si^ecimen  comes.  With  all  these  limitations  properly  api)reci 
ated,  the  key  will  be  found  helpful  toward  greater  familiarity  with  the 
woods  which  are  more  commonly  met  with. 

The  features  which  have  been  utilized  in  tho  key  and  with  wliich — 
their  names  as  well  as  their  appearance — therefore,  the  reader  must  I'amil- 
iarize  himself  before  attempting  to  use  the  key,  are  mostly  described  as 
they  aj)pear  in  cross  section.     They  are: 

(1)  Sapwood  and  heartwood  (see  p.  13),  the  former  being  the  wood 
from  the  outer  and  the  latter  from  the  inner  i)art  of  the  tree.    In  some 


Fig.  37. — "Xon-porous"  wouils.    ^1,  fir;  B,  "hard"  piuc;  C,  soft  piue;  ar,  auuual  ring;  o.  «.,  outer 
edge  of  ring :  i.  e,  inner  edge  of  ring ;  *.  w.,  summer  wood ;  sp.  tv,  spring  wood ;  rd,  resin  ducts. 

cases  they  differ  only  in  shade,  and  in  others  in  kind  of  color,  the  heart- 
wood  exhibiting  either  a  darker  shade  or  a  pronounced  color.  Since 
one  can  not  always  have  the  two  together,  or  be  certain  whether  he  has 
sapwood  or  heartwood,  reliance  upon  this  feature  is,  to  be  sure,  unsat- 
isfactory, yet  sometimes  it  is  the  only  general  characteristic  that  can 
be  relied  upon.  If  further  assurance  is  desired,  microscopic  structure 
must  be  examined;  in  such  cases  reference  has  been  made  to  the  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  tracheids  in  i)ith  rays  and  the  structure  of  their 
walls,  especially  projections  and  spirals. 

(2)  Annual  rings,  their  formation  having  been  described  on  page  14. 
(See  also  figs.  37-39.)  They  are  more  or  less  distinctly  marked,  and  by 
means  of  such  marking  a  classification  of  three  great  groui>s  of  wood 
is  possible. 

(3)  Spring  wood  and  summer  wood,  the  former  being  the  interior 
(first  formed  wood  of  the  year),  the  latter  the  exterior  (last  formed)  part 


DISTINGUISHING  FEATURES. 


61 


of  the  ring.  The  proportion  of  each  and  the  manner  in  which  the  one 
merges  into  the  other  are  sometimes  used,  but  more  frequently  the 
manner  in  which  the  pores  appear  distributed  in  either. 


Fig. 38. — "Ring-porou3  "  woods — white  oak  and  hickory,  a.r.,  annual  ring;  su.  w.,  summer  wood ; 
gp.u'..  spring  wood;  v,  ves.sels  or  pores;  c.  I.,  "concentric"  lines;  r<,  darker  tracts  of  hard  libers  form- 
ing the  tirm  part  of  oak  wood ;  pr,  pith  rays. 

(4)  Pores,  which  are  vessels  cut  through,  appearing  as  holes  in  cross 
section,  in  longitudinal  section  as  channels,  scratches,  or  indentations. 
(See  I).  19  and  figs.  38  and  39.)  They  appear  only  in  the  broad-leaved, 
so  called,  hard  woods;  their  relative  size  (large,  medium,  small,  minute, 
and  indistinct,  when  they  cease  to  be  visible  individually  by  the  naked 
eye)  and  manner  of  distribution  in  the  ring  being  of  much  importance, 
and  especially  in  the  summer  wood,  where  they  appear  singly,  in  gToups, 
or  short  broken  lines,  in  continuous  concentric,  often  wavy,  lines,  or  in 
radial  branching  lines. 

(5)  Eesin  ducts  (see  p.  16  and  fig.  37),  which  appear  very  much  like 
pores  in  cross  section,  namely,  as  holes  or  lighter  or  darker  colored 
dots,  but  much  more  scattered.  They  occur  only  in  coniferous  woods, 
and  their  presence  or  absence,  size,  number,  and  distribution  are  an 
important  distinction  in  these  woods. 


ar(   \ 


I Beech I Sycamore I Birch 

Fig. 39.— "Dififuse-poroua "  woods,    ar,  annual  ring:  pr,  pith  rays  which  are  "broafl"  at  a,  "fine"  at 

6,  "indistinct"  at  d. 

(6)  Pith  rays  (see  p.  17  and  figs.  38  and  39),  which  in  cross  section  appear 
as  radial  lines,  and  in  radial  section  as  interrupted  bauds  of  varying 
breadth,  impart  a  peculiar  luster  to  that  section  in  some  woods.  They 
are  most  readily  visible  with  the  naked  eye  or  with  a  magnifier  in  the 


62  TIMBER. 

broad-leaved  woods.  In  coniferous  woods  they  are  iisnally  so  fine  and 
closely  i)a(;ked  tliat  to  the  casual  observer  they  do  not  appear.  Their 
breadth  and  their  greater  or  less  distinctness  are  used  as  distinguishinji 
marks,  being  styled  flue,  broad,  distinct,  very  distinct,  conspicuous,  and 
indistinct  when  no  longer  visible  by  the  naked  (strong)  eye. 

(7)  Concentric  lines,  appearing  in  the  sunnner  wood  of  certain  species 
more  or  less  distinct,  resembling  distantly  the  lines  of  pores  but  much 
finer  and  not  consisting  of  pores.     (See  tig.  .'i8.) 

Of  microscopic  features,  the  following  only  have  been  leferred  to: 

(8)  Tracheids,  a  description  of  whidi  is  to  be  found  on  page  20. 

(9)  Pits,  simple  and  bordered,  especially  the  number  of  simple  pits 
in  the  cells  of  the  pith  rays,  which  lead  into  each  of  the  adjoining 
tracheids. 

For  standards  of  weiglit,  consult  table  on  page  28;  for  standards  of 
hardness,  table  on  page  47. 

Unless  otherwise  stated  the  color  refers  always  to  the  fresh  cross  sec- 
tion of  a  piece  of  dry  wood;  sometimes  distinct  kinds  of  color,  some- 
times only  shades,  and  often  only  general  color  effects  appear. 

HOW   TO   USE   THE   KEY. 

Nobody  need  expect  to  be  able  to  use  successfully  any  key  for  the  dis- 
tinction of  woods  or  of  any  other  class  of  natural  objects  without  some 
practice.  This  is  especially  true  with  regard  to  woods,  which  are  apt  to 
vary  much,  and  when  the  key  is  based  on  such  meager  generaitdata  as  the 
present.  The  best  course  to  adopt  is  to  supply  one's  self  with  a  small 
sain])le  collection  of  woods,  ac(;urately  named.  Small,  polished  tablets 
are  of  little  use  for  this  purpose.  The  pieces  should  be  large  enough, 
if  possible,  to  include  i)ith  and  bark,  and  of  sufhcient  width  to  permit 
ready  inspection  of  the  cross  section.  By  examining  these  with  the 
aid  of  the  key,  beginning  with  the  better-known  woods,  one  will  soon 
learn  to  see  the  features  described  and  to  form  an  idea  of  the  relative 
standards  which  the  maker  of  the  key  had  in  mind.  To  aid  in  this, 
the  accompanying  illustrations  will  be  of  advantage.  When  the  reader 
becomes  familiar  with  the  key,  the  work  of  identifying  any  given  piece 
will  be  comparatively  easy.  The  material  to  be  examined  must,  of 
course,  be  suitably  prepared.  It  should  be  moistened;  all  cuts  should 
be  made  with  a  very  sharp  knife  or  razor  and  be  clean  and  smooth,  for 
a  bruised  surface  reveals  but  little  structure.  The  most  useful  cut  may 
be  made  along  one  of  the  edges.  Instructive,  thin,  small  sections  may 
be  made  with  a  sharp  penknife  or  razor,  and  when  placed  on  a  i)iece  ot 
thin  glass,  moistened  and  covered  with  another  piece  of  glass,  they 
may  be  examined  bj^  holding  them  toward  the  light. 

Finding,  on  examination  with  the  magnitier,  that  it  contains  pores, 
we  know  it  is  not  coniferous  or  nonporous.  Finding  no  pores  col- 
lected in  the  spring-wood  i)ortion  of  the  annual  ring,  but  all  scat- 
tered (difJ'used)  through  the  ring,  we  turn  at  once  to  the  class  of  "  Dif- 


HOW    TO    DISTINGUISH    WOODS.  63 

fuse-porous  woods."  We  now  uote  the  size  and  niamier  in  wliicli  the 
pores  are  distributed  through  the  ring.  Finding  them  very  small  and 
neither  conspicuously  grouped,  nor  larger  nor  more  abundant  in  the 
si)ring  wood,  we  turn  to  the  third  group  of  this  class.  We  now  note 
the  pith  rays,  and  tiudii;g  them  neither  broad  nor  conspicuous,  but  dif- 
ficult to  distinguish,  even  with  tlie  magnifier,  we  at  once  exclude  the 
wood  from  the  first  two  sections  of  this  group  and  i)lace  it  in  the  third, 
which  is  represented  by  only  one  kind,  cottonwood.  Findnig  the  wood 
very  soft,  white,  and  on  the  longitudinal  section  with  a  silky  luster,  we 
are  further  assured  that  our  determination  is  correct.  We  may  now 
turn  to  the  list  of  woods  and  obtain  further  information  regarding  the 
occurrence,  qualities,  and  uses  of  the  wood. 

Sometimes  our  jirogress  is  not  so  easy;  we  may  waver  in  what  group 
or  section  to  place  the  wood  before  us.  In  such  cases  we  may  try  each 
of  the  doubtful  roads  until  we  reach  a  point  Avhere  we  find  ourselves 
entirely  wrong  and  then  return  and  take  up  another  line;  or  we  may 
anticipate  some  of  the  later-mentioned  features  and  finding  them  apply 
to  our  specimen,  gain  additional  assurance  of  the  direction  we  ought 
to  travel.  Color  will  often  help  us  to  arrive  at  a  speedy  decision.  In 
many  cases,  especially  with  conifers,  which  are  rather  difficult  to  dib- 
tinguish,  a  knowledge  of  the  locality  from  which  the  specimen  comes  is 
at  once  decisive.  Thus,  northern  white  cedar,  and  bald  cypress,  and 
the  cedar  of  the  Pacific  will  be  identified,  even  without  the  somewhat 
indefinite  criteria  given  in  the  key. 


KEY  TO  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  WOODS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

[The  numbers  preceding  names  refer  to  the  List  of  Woods  foUowmf;  llie  Key.] 

I  Non-porous  -woods — Pores  not  visible  or  conspicuous  on  cross  section,  even 
with  niaiitiitier.  Annual  rings  distinct  by  denser  (dark  colored)  bands  of  snmmer 
.vood  ((ijr.  37). 

II.  Ring-porous  "woods. — Pores  nunierons,  nsiially  visible  on  cross  section  with 
ont  niiij;;nifier.  Annual  rinjjs  distinct  by  ."  zone  of  large  jK)res  collected  in  the  s])ring 
wood,  alternatinii'  witli  the  denser  sniunier  wood  {l\<i.  38). 

III.  Diffuse-porous  woods. ^ — Pores  nnnieions,  usually  not  plainly  visible  on  cross 
section  without  uiagiiilier.  Annual  rings  distinct  by  a  line  Hue  of  denser  summer 
wood  cells,  often  quite  indistinct;  pores  scattered  through  annual  ring,  no  zone  of 
collected  pores  in  spring  wood  (fig.  39). 

NoTK. — The  above  described  three  groups  are  exogenous,  i.  e.,  they  grow  by  add« 
ing  annually  wood  on  their  circumference.  A  fourth  group  is  formed  by  the  endog< 
euous  woods,  like  yuccas  and  i»alms,  which  do  not  grow  by  such  additions. 

I. — NO^-POROL>i  WOODS. 

(IiK'kules  all  coniferous  woods.) 
A.  Resin  ducts  wanting.' 

1.  No  distinct  heartwood. 

a.  Color  etiect   yellowLsh   white;   summer  wood  darker  yellowish   (nndei 

microscope  pith  ray  without  tracheids) (Nos.  9-13)  FiR.s. 

/).  Color  effect  reddish  (roseate)  (under  microscope  pith  ray  with  tracheids), 

(Nos.  14  and  15)  Hkmlock. 

2.  Heartwood  present,  color  decidedly  different  in  kind  from  sapwood. 

a.  Heartwood  light  orange  red;    sapwood,  pale  lemon;    wood,  heavy  and 
hard (No.  38)  Yew. 


ADDITIONAL  NOTE.S   FOR   DISTINCTIONS  IN   THE   GROUP. 

Spruce  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  fir,  except  by  the  existence  of  the  resit 
ducts,  and  microscopically  by  the  presence  of  tracheids  in  the  medullary  rays. 
Spruce  may  also  be  confounded  with  soft  pine,  except  for  the  heartwood  color  of  the 
latter  and  the  larger,  more  frequent,  and  more  readily  visible  resin  ducts. 

In  the  lumber  yard,  hemlock  is  usually  recognized  by  color  and  the  silvery  char- 
acter of  its  surface.     Western  hemlocks  partake  of  this  last  character  to  a  less  degree 

Microscopically  the  white  i)iiic  can  bo  distinguished  I)y  having  usually  only  one 
largo  pit,  while  spruce  shows  three  to  five  very  small  pits  in  the  pareuchyma  cells 
of  the  i)ith  ray  communicating  with  tiie  tracheid. 

The  distinction  of  the  pines  is  possible  only  by  microscopic  examination.  The 
following  distinctive  features  may  assist  in  recognizing,  when  in  the  log  or  liimbei 
pile,  those  usually  found  iu  the  market: 

The  light,  straw  color,  combined  with  great  lightness  and  softness,  distinguishes 
the  white  pines  (white  pine  and  sugar  pine)  from  th(?  hard  pines  (all  others  in  the 
market),  which  may  also  be  recoguizeil  by  the  gradual  change  of  spring  wood  into 
snmmer  wood.  This  change  iu  hard  pines  is  abrupt,  making  the  summer  wood 
appear  as  a  sharply  defined  and  more  or  less  broad  band. 


'  To  discover  tlio  resin  ducts  a  very  smooth  surface  is  necpssary.  since  rrsiu  ducts  are  frequently 
si'en  only  with  ditticulty,  apiiearing  on  the  cross  section  .-is  fine  whiter  or  darker  s))ots  normally  scat- 
tered singly,  rarelj'  in  proups,  usually  in  the  suramer  wood  of  the  annual  rinjr.  They  arc  often  niurh 
more  easily  seen  on  radial,  and  still  more  so  on  tanjrcntinl  sections,  aiiiicaring  there  as  tine  lines  or 
dots  of  o)ien  gVructure  of  different  color  or  as  iudontations  or  pin  scratches  in  a  longitudinal  direction. 
64 


KEY   TO   CONIFEROUS   WOODS.  65 

6.  Heartwood  pnr{)lish  to  brownish  red;  sapwood  yellowish  ■white;  wood' 

soft  to  medium  hard  light,  usually  with  aromatic  odor  .(No,  6)  Rku  cedar, 
c,  Heartwood  maroon  to  terra  cotta  or  deep  brownish  red;  sapwood  light 
orange  to  dark  amber,  very  soft  and  liglit,  no  odor;  pith  rays  very  dis- 
tinct, specially  pronounced  on  radial  section (No.  7)  Redwood. 

3.  Heartwood  present,    color   only   dilferent  in   shade  from  sapwood,   dingy- 
yellowish  brown. 

fl.  Odorless  and  tasteless (No.  8)  Bald  cyprkss, 

h.  Wood  with  mild  nsinous  odor,  but  tasteless (Nos.  1-4)  WniTK  cedar. 

c.  Wood   with    strong    resinous    odor    and    peppery   taste    "wheu    freshly 

cut (No.  5)  Incense  cedar. 

B.  Resin  ducts  present. 

1.  No  distinct  heartwood;  color  white,  resin  ducts  very  small,  not  numerous,        / 

(Nos,  33-36)  Spruce.' 

2,  Distinct  heartwood  present.  -7 

a.  Resin  ducts  nun)erous,  evenlj"  scattered  through  the  ring. 

a'.  Transition  from  spring  wood  to  summer  wood  gradual ;  annual  ring 
distinguished  by  a  tine  line  of  dense  summer-wood  cells;  color,  white 
to  yellowish  red;  wood  soft  and  light (Nos.  18-21)  Soft  pines.' 

b'.  Transition  from  spring  wood  to  summer  wood  more  or  less  abrupt; 
broad  bands  of  dark-colored  summer  wood;  color  from  light  to  deep 

orange;  wood  medium  hard  and  heavy (Nos. 22-32)  Hard  pjnes.' 

i.  Resin  ducts  not  numerous  nor  ev^euly  distributed. 

a'.  Color  of  heartwood  orange-reddish,  sapwood  yellowish  (same  as  hard 
pine);  resin  ducts  frequently  combined  in  groups  of  8  to  30,  forming 
lines  on  the  cross  section  (tracheids  with  spirals), 

(No.  37)  Douglas  spruce. 

i'.  Color  Q^  heartwood  light  russet  brown;  of  sapwood  yellowish 
brown  ;  resin  ducts  very  few,  irregularly  scattered  (tracheids  without 
sj)iral8) (Nos.  16  and  17)  Tamarack. 

The  Norway  pine,  which  may  be  confounded  with  the  shortleaf  pine,  can  be  dis- 
tinguished by  being  much  lighter  and  softer.  It  may  also,  but  more  rarely,  be 
confounded  with  heavier  white  pine,  but  for  the  sharper  definition  of  the  annual 
ring,  weight,  and  hardness. 

The  lougleaf  pine  is  strikingly  heavy,  hard,  and  resinous,  and  usually  very  regu- 
lar and  narrow  ringed,  showing  little  sapwood,  and  differing  in  this  respect  from  the 
shortleaf  pine  and  loblolly  pine,  which  usually  have  wider  rings  and  more  sapwood, 
the  latter  excelling  in  that  respect. 

The  following  convenient  and  useful  classification  of  pines  into  four  groups,  pro- 
posed by  Dr.  H.  Mayr,  is  based  on  the  appearance  of  the  pith  ray  as  seen  in  a  radial 
section  of  the  spring  wood  of  any  ring: 
Section  I.  W^alls  of  the  tracheids  of  the  pith  ray  with  dentate  projections. 

a.  One  to  two  large,  simple  pits  to  each  tracheid  on  the  radial  walls  of  the  cells 

of  the  pith  ray. — Group  1.  Represented  in  this  country  only  by/',  reainosa. 
h.  Three  to  six  simple  pits  to  each  ti-achcid,  on  the  walls  of  the  cells  of  the 
pith  ray. — Group  2.  P.  taeda,  j^i^lustris,  etc.,   including  most  of  our  "hard'- 
and  "yellow"  pines. 
Section  II.  Walls  of  tracheids  of  pith  ray  smooth,  without  dentate  projections. 
a.  One  or  two  large  pits  to  each  tracheid  on  the  radial  walls  of  each  cell  of  the 

pith  ray. — Group  3.  P.  strobus,  lambertlana,  and  other  true  white  pines. 
6.  Three  to  six  small  pits  on  the  radial  walls  of  each  cell  of  the  pith  ray. 
Group  4.  P.  parnjana,  and  other  nut  pines,  including  also  /'.  halfouriana. 


P 


Soft  and  hard  pines  are  arbitrary  distinctions  and  the  two  not  distinguisbable  at  the  limit. 

3521— No.  10 5 


66 


TIMBER. 


II.— RTIVK-POBOErS  VTOODS. 

[Some  of  Group  I)  and  codar  elm  imperfectly  ring-porous.] 

A.  Pores  in  the  suuimer  wood  iiiiimte,  scattered  singly  or  in  groups,  or  in  fihort 
broken  lines,  the  course  of  which  is  never  radial. 

1.  Pith  rays  minute,  s(  arcely  distinct. 

a.   Wood  heavy  and  hard;  jiores  in  the  summer  wood  not  in  clusters. 

a'  Color  of  radial  section  not  yellow (Nos.  39-44)  Ash. 

6.'  Color  of  radial  section  light  yellow  ;  l»y  which, together  with  its  hardness 
and  wciglit,  this  species  is  easily  recognized. .  (Xo.  103)  Osaoe  oraxgk. 
6.  Wood  light  and  soft;  pores  in  the  summer  wood  in  clusters  of  10  to  30, 

(No.  56)  Catalpa. 

2.  Pith  rays  very  fine,  yet  distinct;  jjores  in  summer  wood  usually  single  or  in 
short  lines;  color  of  heartwood  reddish  hrown;  of  sapwood  yellowish  white; 
peculiar  odor  on  fresh  section (No.  Ill)  Sassafras. 

3.  Pith  rays  fine,  but  distinct. 

a.  Very  heavy  and  hard;  heartwood  yellowish  brown.  (No.  77)  Black  Locust. 

b.  Heavy;  medium  hard  to  hard. 

a.'  Pores  in  summer  wood  very  minute,  usually  in  small  clusters  of  3  to 
8;  heartwood  light  orange  brown (No.  83)  Ki:i)  jiulbkrry. 

6.'  Pores  in  summer  wood  small  to  minute,  usually  isolated;  heartwood 
cherry  red (No.  61)  Coffee  tree. 


ADDITIONAL   NOTES   FOR  DISTINX'TIOXS   IN  THE   GROUP. 

Sassafras  and  mulberry  may  be  confounded  but  for  the  greater  weight  and  hard- 
ness and  the  absence  of  odor  in  the  mulberry;  the  radial  section  of  mulberry  also 
shows  the  pith  rays  conspicuously. 

Honey  locust,  coffee  tree,  and  black  locust  are  also  very  similar  in  appearance. 
The  honey  locust  stands  out  by  the  conspicuousuess  of  the  pith  rays,  especially  on 
radial  sections,  on  account  of  their  height,  while  the  black  locust  is  distinguished  by 
the  extremely  great  weight  and  hardness,  together  with  its  darker  brown  color. 


Fi(i.40.— Wood  of  ((.lit'.-  Ii.c 

The  ashes,  elms,  hickories,  and  oaks  may,  cm  casual  observation,  appear  to 
resemble  one  another  ou  account  of  the  pronounced  zone  of  jioroas  spring  wood. 
The  sharply  delincd  largo  pith  rays  of  the  oak  exclude  these  at  once;  the  wavy 
lines  of  pores  in  the  suunner  wood,  appearing  as  conspicuous  finely -feathered  hatch- 
iugs  ou  tangential  section,  distinguish  the  eluis;  while  the  ashes  differ  from  tlie 
bickory  by  the  very  conspicuously  deliued  zone  of  spring- wood  pores,  which  in 
hickory  appear  more  or  less  interrupted.  The  reddish  hue  of  the  hickory  and  the 
more  or  less  brown  hue  of  the  ash  may  also  aid  iu  ready  recognition.  The  smooth, 
fadial  surface  of  split  hickory  will  i-eadily  separate  it  from  the  rest. 


KEY    TO    RING-POROUS   WOODS.  67 

4.  Pith  rays  fine  but  very  conspicuous,  even  without  uiaj^nificr.  Color  of  heart- 
wood  red ;  of  sapwood  |)alo  lemon (No.  IS)  IIonky  l.ocrsT. 

13.  Pores  of  summer  wood  minute  or  small,  in  contirntric  wavy  and  sometimes  branc-h- 
ing  lines,  appearing  as  liuely-feathered  hatchings  on  tangential  section. 

1.  Pith  rays  line,  hut  very  distinct;  color  greenish  white.  Heartwood  absent 
orimperlcctly  developed (No.  70)  IIackukkuy. 

2.  Pith  rays  indistinct;  color  of  heartwood  reddish  brown  ;  sapwood  grayish 
to  reddish  white  ... (Nos.62-6fi)  Ki.ms. 

C.  Pores  of  summer  wood  arranged  in  radial  branching  lines  (when  very  crowded 

radial  arrangement  somewhat  obscured). 

1.  Pith  rays  very  minute,  hardly  Aisible ( Xos.  oS-GO)  CiiKSTNirr. 

2.  Pith  rays  very  broad  and  conspicuous (Nos.  84-102)  Oak. 

D.  Pores  of  summer  wood  mostly  but  little  smaller  than  those  of  the  spring  wood, 

isolated  and  scattered;  very  heavy  and  hard  woods.  The  pores  of  the  spring 
wood  sometimes  form  but  an  imperfect  zone.  (Some  diffuse- porous  woods  of 
groups  A  and  B  may  seem  to  belong  here.) 

1.  Fine  concentric  lines  (not  of  pores)  as  distinet,  or  nearly  so,  as  the  very  fine 
pith  rays;  outer  summer  wood  with  a  tinge  of  red;  heartwood  light  reddish 
brown (Nos.  71-75)  Hickouy. 

2.  Fine  concentric  lines,  much  finer  than  the  pith  rays;  no  reddish  tinge 
in  summer  wood;  sapwood  white;  heartwood  blackish, 

(No.  10.5)  Persimmon. 


ADDITIONAL  NOTES   FOR  DISTINCTIONS   IN  THE   GROUP. 


Fig.  41.— -1,  lilack  asli;  B,  white  ash  ;  V,  green  ash. 


The  difierent  species  of  ash  may  be  identified  as  follows: 

1.  Pores  in  the  summer  wood  more  or  less  united  into  lines. 

a.  The   lines   short   and   broken,   occurring   mostly    near   the    limit  of  the 
ring (No  39)  White  ash. 

b.  The   lines   (juite   long   and    conspicuous    iii    most   parts   of  the   summer 
w 1  (No.  4:;)  (ii.-KEX  asm. 

2.  Pores  in  the  summer  wood  not  united  into  lines,  or  rarely  so. 

a.  Heartwood  reddish  brown  and  very  firm (No.  40)  Red  ash. 

b.  Heartwood  grayish  brown,  and  much  more  porous..  (No.  41)  Black  ash. 


68 


TIMBER. 


ADDiTioxAr.  NOTKS — Continued. 

In  the  oaks,  two  groups  ciiu  be  readily  distinguished  by  the  manner  in  which  the 
pores  are  distributed  in  the  summer  wood.  In  the  white  oaks  the  pores  are  very 
fine  aud  numerous  and  crowded  in  the  outer  part  of  the  summer  wood,  while  in  the 
black  or  red  oaks  the  pores  are  larger,  few  in  number,  and  mostly  isolated.  'I'lic  live 
oaks,  as  far  as  structure  is  concerned,  belong  to  the  black  oaks,  but  arc  much  less 
porous,  and  are  exceedingly  heavy  and  hard. 


Fig.  42.— Wood  of  red  oak.     (For  wliitu  oak  .see  fig.  38.) 


pgQ°o.Q(?o|;'ooo|oooo^ 


Fi'-..  !;).- 


ood  (ifc'.ii'slinit. 


FlQ.  44.— Wood  ol' hickory. 


ANALYTICAL    KEY.  69 

III  —  DIFFimE.POICOIX    U'OODN. 

[A  few  iiitlisliiiftly  rinij:-i(ori>iis   woods  of  (iroup  II,  1),  atiil  cedar  cliii  may  sc<tii   to  liiloii^;  lieri'.] 

A.  Ton's  varyinji  in  size  from  large  to  minute;  largest  in  spring  wood,  thereby 
giving  sometimes  the  appearance  of  a  ring-j)oioii8  arrangement. 

1.  Heavy    anil  hard;    color  of   heartwood  (especially  on  longitudinal  section) 
chocolate  lirowu (No.  lit!)  Ui.ack  wai.nct. 

2.  Light  and  soft;  color  of  heartwood  liglit  reddi>h  brown.  (No.  55)  IUttkknmt. 

B.  Pores  all  minute  and  indistinct;  most  numerous  in  spring  wood,  giving  rise  to  a 
lighter  colored  zone  or  line  (especially  on  longitudinal  section),  thereby  apjiear- 
iug  sometimes  ring  ]>orous;  wood  hard,  heartwood  vincis  reddish;  pith  rays  very 
tine,  but  very  distinct.  (See  also  the  sometinu-s  in<listinct  ring-i)orous  cedar  elm, 
and  occasit)nally  winged  elm,  which  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  concentric 
wavy  lines  of  jiores  in  the  summer  wood) (No.  57)  Chekky. 

C.  Pores  minute  or  indistinct,  neither  conspicuously  larger  nor  more  numerous  in 
the  spring  wood  and  evenly  distributed. 

1.  Broad  pith  rays  present. 

a.  All  or  most  ])ith  rays  broad,  numerous,  and  crowded,  especially  on  tan- 
gential sections,  medium  heavy  and  hard,  difficult  to  split, 

(Nos.  112  and  113)  Sycamore. 
h.  Only  part  of  the  pith  rays  broad. 

a'.  Broad  pith  rays  well  delined,  (juite  numerous;    wood  reddisii-white 

to  reddish (No.  47)  Bkech. 

&'.  Broad  ])ith  rays  not  sharply  deliued,  made  up  of  many  small  rays, 
not  numerous.  Stem  furrowed,  and  therefore  the  periphery  of  sec- 
tion, and  with  it  the  annual  rings  sinuous,  bending  in  and  out,  and 
the  large  pith  rays  generally  limited  to  the  furrows  or  concave  por- 
tions.    Wood  white,  not  reddish (No.  52)  BLUE  beech. 

2.  No  broad  pith  rays  jtresent. 

a.  Pith  rays  small  to  very  small,  but  quite  distinct. 
«'.  Wood  hard. 

a" .  Color  reddish  white,  with  dark  reddish  tinge  in  outer  summer 

wood (Nos.  79-S2)  Maple. 

h" .  Color  white,  without  reddish  tinge (No.  76)  Holly. 

b'.  Wood  soft  to  very  soft. 

a" .  Pores  crowded,  occupying  nearly  all  the  s)iace  between  pith  rajs. 
a'" .  Color  yellowish  white,  often  a  with  greenish  tinge  in  heart- 
wood    (No.  115)  TULII*  I'OI'LAU, 

(No.  116)  Cucu.mbek  tree, 
h" .  Color  of  sapwood  grayish,  of  heartwood  light  to  dark  red- 
dish brown (No.  61))  Sweet  gu.m. 

h" .  Pores   not   crowded,  occupying  not   over  one-third   the  space 
between  pith  rays;  heartwood  brownisli  white  to  very  light  brown, 

(Nos.  45  and  46)  Basswood. 
h.  Pith  rays  scarcely  distinct,  yet  if  viewed  with  ordinary  magnifier,  plainly 
visible. 

a' .  Pores  indistinct  to  the  naked  eye. 

a'.  Color  uniform  ])ale  yellow;  pith  rays  not  conspicuous  even  on 

the  radial  section (Nos.  53  and  .54 )  Bl'ckeye. 

h".   Sapwood  yellowish  gray,  heartwood  grayish  brown;  pith  rays 

conspicuous  on  the  radial  section (Nos.  67-68)  Soru  gum. 

h'.  Pores  scarcely  distinct, butmostly  visible  as  grayish  specks  on  the  cross 
section;  sapwood  whitish,  heartwood  reddish (Nos.  48-51)  Birch. 

D.  Pith  rays  not  visible  or  else  indistinct,  even  if  viewed  with  magnilier. 

1.  Wood  very  soft,  white,  or  in  Ishades  of  brown,  usually  with  a  silky  luster, 

(Nos.  105-110)  Cottonwood  (poplar.) 


70 


TIMBER. 


ADDITIOXAI,    N(»Ti:S    lOK    DIS  riN(  Tl(  iNS    IX    TIIK    (iR()TTl>. 

Cherry  and  birch  are  soinntiiiies  coiiioiiiKU'd,  tlif  liiuli  pith  rays  on  the  cherry  on 
radial  sections  readily  distiiignishes  it;  (listinct  i)ores  on  hirch  and  spring  wood 
zone  in  cherry  as  well  as  the  darker  vinons-brown  c<dor  of  the  latter  will  prove 
helpful. 

Two  groups  of  birches  can  be  readily  distinguishe<l,  thougli  specific  distinction 
is  not  always  possil)Ic. 

1.  Pith  rays  fairly  distinct,  the  pores  ratlier  few  and  not  more  abnndant  in  the 
spriuir  wood;  wood  heavy,  usually  darker, 

(No.  48)  CnKUUY  macu  and  (No.  49)  yki.low  luucn. 

2.  Pith  rays   barely  distinct,  i)orcs  more   numerous  and  commonly  forming  a 
more  porous  spring-wood  zone;  wood  of  medium  weight, 

(No.  51)  Canok  on  PAi'KU  r.iKCH 


^T! 


ari 


Lljj- ^* 


Beech I Sycamore p Birch. 

Fio.  45. — Wood  of  bcicli,  sycamore,  ami  bircli. 


The  sjjecies  of  maple  may  be  distinguished  as  fidlows: 

1.  ^lost  of  the  pith  rays  broader  than  the  jxiics  and  very  conspicuous, 

(No.  79)  Sugar  mapi.e. 

2.  Pith  rays  not  or  rarely  broader  than  the  pores,  fine  but  conspicuous. 

a.  Wood  heavy  and  hard,  usually  of  darker  reddish  color  and  commonly 

spotted  on  cro.ss  section (No.  80)  Hed  mai-i.e. 

h.  Wood  of  medium  weiglit  and  hardness,  usually  light  colored, 

(No.82)  SiLVKU  MAI'I.E. 


FlO.  4G.— "Wooil  of  luaplo. 


Red  maple  is  not  always  safely  distinguished  from  soft  maple.     In  box  elder  the 
pores  are  finer  and  more  numerous  than  in  soft  mai)le. 


ANALYTICAL    KEY. 


7i 


ADDiTiONAi.  NOTKs — coutinued. 

The  various  species  of  elm  may  l)o  distinguished  as  follows: 

1.  Pores  of  spring  wood  form  a  hroad  baud  of  several  rows;   easy  splitting, 
dark  browu  heart (No.  64)  Red  klm. 

2.  Pores  of  spring  wood  usually  in  a  single  row,  or  nearly  so. 

rt.  Pores  of  spring  wood  large,  (■ons])icuonsly  so (No.  ()2)  Wihtk  ki.m. 

h.  Pores  of  spring  wood  small  to  minute. 

a'.  Lines  of  pores  in  sununer  wood  fine,  not  as  wide  as  the  intermediate 
spaces,  giving  rise  to  very  romjjaet  grain (No.  03)  l\OCK  elm. 

h'.  Lines  of  jtores  broad.  ( oinnionly  as  wide  as  the  intermediate  spaces, 

(No.  GG)  WlXGEP  ELM. 

c.  Pores   in   spring  wood   indistimt,    and   therefore  hardly  a  ring-porous 
wood (No.  65)  Cedau  elm. 


Fig.  47.— Wood  of  elm.    a,  red  elm;  t,  white  elm;  c,  winged  elm. 


^:c.l. 


Ifpl 

M 

jTo     C 

S8 

.  6-'  "^  ii  — 

-  0  1 

'4o 

if 

,.p.r. 


>  su.w. 


}  sp.w. 


I'm.  4S.— Waluut.  y>.  r..  pith  rays;  c.  I.,  con 
centric  hues;  v,  vessels  or  pores;  m.  w., 
summer  wood ;  sp.  tv.,  spring  wood. 


1''1G. -lU.— Wood  ol'  cherry. 


LIST  OF  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  WOODS  OF  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 

[Arranged  alpliabetically.] 

A.— co.'vifekoij.s  woods. 

Woods  of  simp]e  and.  iinif(n-m  structure,  generally  lifflit,  soft  but  stiff;  abnndant 
in  siiitalile  dimensions  and  forming  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  all  tlie  lumber  used. 
CEDAR. — Light,  soft,  stiff,  not  strong,  of  fine  texture;  sap  and  beartwood  distinct 
the  former  lighter,  the  latter  a  dull,  grayish  brown,  or  red.  The  wood  seasons 
rapidly,  shrinks  and  checks  but  little,  and  is  very  durable.  Used  like  soft  pine, 
but  owing  to  its  great  durability  preferred  for  shingles,  etc.  Small  sizes  used  for 
posts,  ties,  etc'  Cedars  usually  occur  scattered,  but  they  form,  in  certain  local- 
ities, forests  of  considerable  extent. 

a.  White  cedars. — Heartwood  a  light  grayish  brown. 

1.  White  cedar  (TJniija  occidfittaliii)  (Arborvitie) :  Scattered  along  streams  and 
lakes,  frequently  covering  extensive  swamps;  rarely  large  enough  fur  lumber, 
but  commonly  used  for  posts,  ties,  etc.     Maine  to  ^Slinne.sota  and  northward. 

2.  Canoh  cedar  ( Thuya  tji(jantea){r(id  cedar  of  the  West) :  In  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton a  very  large  tree,  covering  extensive  swamps;  in  the  mountains  luiich 
smaller,  skirting  the  water  courses;  an  important  lumber  tree.  Washington 
to  northern  California  and  eastward  to  Montana. 

3.  WniTK  CKDAii{Cha7n(vcyparis  thyoides):  Medium-sized  tree,  wood  very  light  and 
soft.     Along  the  coast  from  Elaine  to  Mississippi. 

4.  White  cedar  {Chama'cyparis  Iawso7iiana)  (Port  Orford  cedar,  Oregon  cedar, 
Lawson's  cypress,  ginger  pine):  A  very  large  tree,  extensively  cut  for  lumber; 
heavier  and  stronger  than  the  ])receding.     Along  the  coast  line  of  Oregon. 

5.  White  cedar  {Lihocedrun  deciirrcns)  (incense  cedar):  A  large  tree,  abundantly 
scattered  among  pine  and  fir;  wood  fine  grained.  Cascades  and  Siena  Nevada 
of  Oregon  and  California. 

b.  Red  cedars. — Ilcartwood  red. 

6.  Red  cedar  (Junipa-Hs  vhwjiniiiiia)  (Savin  juniper):  Similar  to  white  cedar,  but 
of  somewhat  finer  texture.  Used  in  cabinetwork  in  cooi»erage,  for  veneers,  and 
especially  for  lead  pencils,  for  which  purjiose  alone  several  million  feet  are 
cut  each  year.  A  small  to  medium  sized  tree  scattered  through  the  forests, 
or,  in  the  West,  sparsely  covering  extensive  areas  (cedar  brakes).  The  red 
cedar  is  the  most  widely  distributed  conifer  of  the  United  States,  occurring 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  and  from  Florida  to  Minnesota,  but  attains 
a  suitable  size  for  lumber  only  in  the  Southern,  and  more  esjiecially  the  Gulf, 
States. 

7.  Redwohd  (^^equoic  sciitperrire)iH):  Wood  in  its  quality  and  uses  like  white  cedar; 
the  narrow  sapwood  whitish  ;  the  heartwood  light  red,  soon  turning  to  brownish 
red  when  exposed.  A  very  large  tree,  limited  to  the  coast  ranges  of  California, 
and  forming  considerable  forests,  which  are  rapidly  being  converted  into  lumber. 

CYPRESS. 
S.  Cypress  {Taxodimn  dislichum)  (bald  cypress;  black,  white,  and  red  cypress): 
Wood    in    appearance,    quality,    and    uses   similar    to  white    cedar.      '"Black 

'  Since  almo.st  all  kiiuLs  of  woods  are  used  for  fuel  and  cliarcoal,  and  iu  the  construction  of  fences. 
Bheds,  barns,  etc.,  the  enunicratiou  of  these  uses  has  been  omitted  in  this  list. 

72 


LIST    OF   CONIFEROUS   WOODS.  73 

cypross"  and  "white  cypress"  aro  heavy  and  li<;ht  forms  of  the  fiamo  species. 
Tlie  cypress  is  a  largt*  deciduous  tree,  occupying  much  of  the  swamp  and  over- 
How  hind  ah)uj;-  the  coast  and  rivers  of  the  Southern  States. 
FIR.— Tliis  name  is  freiiuently  api)lied  to  wood  and  to  trcios  which  are  not  lir;  most 
connuonly  to  spruce,  hut  also,  especially  in  English  markets,  to  ])ine.     It  reseni- 
hlcs  spruce,  hut  is  easily  distinguished  froui  it,  as  well  as  from  jtine  and  larch,  hy 
the  ahsenee  of  resin  ducts.     Quality,  uses,  and  hahits  similar  to  spruce. 
9.  H.M.SAM  fir  {Abies  Ixtlsamea):  A  medium-sized  tree  scattered  throughout  the 
northern  pineries;  cut,  in  luniher  operations   whenever  of  sufficient  size,  and 
sold  with  pine  or  spruce.     Minnesota  to  Maine  and  northward. 
10.  White  fik  (Abies  grandis  and  Abies  concolor) :  Medium  to  very  large  sized  tree, 
forming   an   important  part  of  most  of  the  Western  mountain  forests,  and  fur- 
nishing much  of  the  lumher  of  the  respective  regions.     The  former  occurs  from 
Vancouver   to    central  California  and  eastward  to  Montana;  the    latter   from 
Oregon  to  Arizona  and  eastward  to  Colorado  and  Xow  Mexico. 
,11.  White  kik  {Abies  amabiUs) :  Good  sized  tree,  often  forming  extensive  mountain 
forests.     Cascade  Mountains  of  Washington  and  Oregon. 

12.  Red  fir  {Abies  vobil is)  {not  to  he  confounded  with  Douglas  fir;  see  No.  37): 
Large  to  very  large  tree,  forming  with  ./.  amabilis  extensive  forests  on  the 
slope  of  the  mountains  hetweeu  3,000  and  4,000  feet  elevation.  Cascade  Moun- 
tains of  Oregon. 

13.  Red  fir  {Abies  magnifica):  Very  large  tree,  forming  forests  about  the  base  of 
Mount  Shasta.     Sierra  Nevada  of  California,  from  Mount  Shasta  southward. 

HEMLOCK. — Lightto  medium  weight,  soft,  stiff  butbrittle,  commonly  crossgrained, 
rough  and  splintery  ;  sapwood  and  heartwood  not  well  defined ;  the  wood  of  a  light, 
reddish-gray  color,  free  from  resin  ducts,  moderately  durable,  shrinks  and  warps 
considerably,  wears  rough,  retains  nails  firmly.  Used  principally  for  dimension 
stuff'  and  timbers.  Hemlocks  are  medium  to  large  sized  trees,  commonly  scattered 
among  broad-leaved  trees  and  conifers,  but  often  forming  forests  of  almost  pure 
growth. 

14.  Hemlock  {Tsuga  canadensis):  Medium-sized  tree,  furnishes  almost  all  the 
hemlock  of  the  Eastern  market.  Maine  to  Wisconsin;  also  following  the  Alle- 
ghanies  southward  to  Georgia  and  Alabama. 

15.  Hemlock  {Tsuga  meriensiana):  Large-sized  tree,  wood  claimed  to  be  heavier 
and  harder  than  the  Eastern  form  and  of  superior  quality.  Washington  to 
California  and  eastward  to  Montana. 

LARCH  OR  TAMARACK. — Wood  like  the  best  of  hard  pine,  both  in  appearance, 
quality,  and  uses,  and  owing  to  its  great  durability,  somewhat  preferred  in  ship- 
building, for  telegraph  poles,  and  railroad  ties.  In  its  structure  it  resembles 
spruce.  The  larches  are  deciduous  trees,  occasionally  covering  considerable  areas, 
but  usually  scattered  among  other  conifers. 

16.  Tamar.\ck  {Larix  americana)  (Hackmatack):  Medium-sized  tree,  often  cov- 
ering swamps,  in  Avhich  case  it  is  smaller  and  of  poor  quality.  Maine  to  Minne- 
sota, and  southward  to  Pennsylvania. 

17.  Tamarack  {L.  occidcntalis):  Large-sized  trees,  scattered,  locally  abundant. 
Washington  and  Oregon  to  Montana. 

PINE. — Very  variable,  very  light  and  soft  in  "soft"  pine,  such  as  white  june;  of 
medium  Aveight  to  heavy  and  quite  hard  in  "hard"  pine,  of  which  longlcaf  or 
Georgia  pine  is  the  extreme  form.  Usually  it  is  stiff,  quite  strong,  of  even  texture, 
and  more  or  less  resinous.  The  sapwood  is  j^ello  wish  white ;  the  heartwood,  o/ange 
brown.  Pine  shrinks  moderately,  seasons  rapidly  and  without  much  injury;  it 
works  easily;  is  never  too  hard  to  nail  (unlike  oak  or  hickory) ;  it  is  mostly  quite 
durable,  and  if  well  seasoned  is  not  subject  to  the  attacks  of  boring  insects.  The 
heavier  the  wood,  the  darker,  stronger,  and  harder  it  is,  and  the  more  it  shrinks 
and  checks.     Pine  is  used  more  ex^tensively  than  any  other  kind  of  wood.     It  is 


74  TIMBER. 

tbe  principal  wood  in  common   carpentry,  as  well  as  in  all  heavy  construction, 
bridges,  trestles,  etc.     It   is  also  used  in  almost  every  other  wood  industry,  for 
spars,  masts,  planks,  and  timbers  in  shipbuildiujj;,  in  car  and  wagon  citustruction, 
in  cooperage,  for  crates  and  boxes,  in  furniture  work,  for  toys  and  patterns,  rail- 
way ties,   water   pipes,  excelsior,  etc.     Pines  are  usually  large  trees  with  few 
braucbes,  the    straight,  cylindrical,  useful  stem  forniiug  by  far  the  greatest  part 
of  the  tree;  they  occur  gregariously,  forming  vast  forests,  a  fact  which   greatly 
facilitates  their   exploitation.      Of  the  many  special  terms    applied  to    pine    as 
lumber,  denoting  sometimes  ditferj-nces  in  quality,  the  following  deserve  attention: 
"  White  ])ine,"  "  pumpkin  i)ine,"  -'soft  pine,"  in  tbe  Eastern  markets  refer  to 
the  wood  of  the  white  pine  (Piniis  strobiis),  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast  to  that 
of  the  sugar  pine  ( I'iniix  lambertiana). 
"Yellow  pine"  is  applied  in  the  trade  to  all  the  Southern  lumber  pines;  in  the 
Northeast  it  is  also  apjilied  to  the  i)it(h  ])ine  (P.  rif/ida);  in  the  West  it  refers 
mostly  to  bull  pine  (P.  ponderosa). 
"Yellow  longleaf  pine,"  "Georgia  pine,"  chiefly  used  in  advertisement,  refers 

to  longleaf  pine  (P.  palusiris). 
"  Hard  jiine"  is  a  common  term  in  carpentry,  and  applies  to  everything  except 

white  i»ine. 
"  Pitch  pine"  includes  all  Southern  pines  and  also  the  true  pitch  pine  (P.  i-if/ida), 
but  is  mostly  applied,  especially  in  foreign  markets,  to  the  wood  of  the  long- 
leaf  pine  (P.  paliiHtris). 
For  tlie  great  variety  of  confusing  local  names  ai»plied  to  the  Southern  pines  in 
their  homes,  part  of  which  have  been  adopted  in  the  markets  of  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board, see  rejjort  of  Chit;!'  of  Division  of  Forestry  for  1891,  page  212,  etc.,  and  also 
the  list  below : 

a.  Soft  pines. 

18.  White  pine  {I'inns  utrobua):  Large  to  very  large  sized  tree;  for  the  last  fifty 
years  the  most  important  timber  tree  of  the  Union,  furnishing  the  best  quality 
of  soft  pine.  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  New  England,  along  the  Alle- 
ghanies  to  Georgia. 

19.  SuGAK  Pixp;  (Pinus  lamhcr liana):  A  very  large  tree,  together  with  Abies  con- 
color,  forming  extensive  forests;  important  lumber  tree.    Oregon  and  California. 

20.  White  pi.ve  {Pinus  inonticola):  A  large  tree,  at  home  in  Montana,  Idaho,  and 
the  Pacific  States;  most  common  and  loyally  used  in  northern  Idaho. 

21.  White  pine  {Pinus  Jlcxilis):  A  small  tree,  forming  mountain  forests  of  consid- 
erable extent  and  locally  used;  Eastern  Kocky  Mountain  slopes;  Montana  to 
New  Mexico. 

b.  Hard  pines. 

22.  Longleaf  pine  {Pinus pahtstris)  (Georgia  pine,  yellow  pine,  long  straw  pine, 
etc.) :  Large  tree;  forms  extensive  forests  and  furnishes  the  hardest  and  strong- 
est pine  lumber  in  the  market.     Coast  region  from  North  Carolina  to  Texas. 

23.  Bull  pine  {Pinus  ponderosa)  (yellow  pine):  Medium  to  very  large  sized  tree, 
forming  extensive  forests  in  Pacific  and  Kocky  Mountain  regions;  furnishes 
most  of  the  hard  pine  of  the  West;  sapwood  wide;  wood  very  variable. 

24.  Loblolly  I'IXE  {Pinus  twda)  (slash  pine,  old  field  i>ine,  rosemary  jjine,  sap 
pine,  short  straw  pine,  etc.):  Large-sized  tree,  forms  extensive  forests;  wider- 
ringed,  coarser,  lighter,  softer,  with  more  sapwood  than  the  longleaf  pine,  but 
the  two  often  confounded.  This  is  the  common  lumber  jjino  from  Virginia  to 
South  Carolina,  and  is  found  extensively  in  Arkansas  and  Texas.  Southern 
States;  Virginia  to  Texas  and  Arkansas. 

%.  Norway  i'iSK{Pinusrcsinosa):  l^arge-sized  tree,  never  forming  forests,  usually 
scattered  or  in  small  groves,  togctlmr  with  white  pine;  largely  sap  wood  and  hence 
not  durable.     Minnesota  to  Michigan;  also  in  New  England  to  Pennsylvania. 


LIST   OP   CONIFEROUS   WOODS.  75 

26.  SiioRTLEAF  PINE  (Pinus  cchinala)  (slash  piue,  Carolina  pine,  yollow  pine,  old 
lield  pine,  etc.):  Keseniblcs  loblolly  pine;  olten  apjiroaihes  in  its  wood  (lie  Nor- 
way pine.  The  eoninion  linnher  jjine  of  Missonri  and  Arkiinsas.  North  (';irolina 
to  Texas  and  Mi.ssonri. 
V  27.  CUB.VN  PINK  {I'hiits  ciihensis)  (slash  pine,  swamp  piue,  bastard  pine,  meadow 
pine):  Resembles  louj^leaf  piue,  but  commonly  has  wider  sa])wood  and  coarser 
grain;  does  uot  enter  the  markets  to  any  great  extent.  Aloug  the  coast  from 
South  Carolina  to  Louisiana. 

28.  Htll  pine  (Finns  Jeff reyi)  (black  i)iue):  Large-sized  tree,  wood  resembling 
bull  piue  (P.  ])ondero8a} ;  used  locally  iu  California,  replacing  P.  ponderom  at 
high  altitudes. 

The  following  are  small  to  medium  sized  jjiues,  uot  commonly  olfered  as  lumber 
in  the  market;  used  locally  for  timber,  ties,  etc. : 

29.  I?LACK  PINE  {Pinus  mnrrdi/ana)  (lodge-pole  pine,  tamarack):  Rocky  Mountains 
and  Pacitic  regions. 

30.  Pitch  pine  (Pinns  ri(jida):  Along  the  coast  from  New  York  to  Georgia  and 
along  the  mountains  to  Kentucky. 

31.  Jersey  pine  (Pinus  inops)  (scrub  pine):  As  before. 

32.  Gray  pine  (Pinus  banksiana)  (scrub  pine):  Maine,  Vermont,  and  Michigan  to 
Minnesota. 

REDWOOD.     (See  Cedar.) 

SPRUCE. — Resembles  soft  pine,  is  light,  very  soft,  stiff,  moderately  strong,  less  resin-' 
ous  than  pine;  has  no  distinct  heartwood,  and  is  of  whitish  color.  Used  like  soft 
pine,  but  also  employed  as  resonance  wood  and  i^referred  for  paper  pulp.  Spruces, 
like  pines,  form  extensive  forest^^;  they  are  more  frugal,  thrive  on  thinner  soils, 
and  bear  more  shade,  but  iisually  reciuire  a  more  hiuuid  climate.  "Black''  and 
"white  spruce,"  as  applied  by  lumbermeu,  u.sually  refer  to  narrow  and  wide 
ringed  forms  of  the  black  spruce  (Picea  nigra). 

33.  Black  spruce  (Picea  nigra):  Medium-sized  tree,  forms  extensive  forests  in 
northeastern  United  States  and  iu  British  America;  occurs  scattered  or  in 
groves,  especially  in  low  lands  throughout  the  Northern  pineries.  Important 
lumber  tree  iu  Eastern  United  States.  Maine  to  Minnesota,  British  America, 
and'on  the  Alleghauies  to  North  Carolina. 

34.  White  spruce  (Picea  aZi<a) :  Generally  associated  with  the  preceding;  most 
abundant  along  streams  and  lakes,  grows  largest  iu  Montana  and  forms  the 
most  important  tree  of  the  subarctic  forest  of  British  America.  Northern 
United  States,  froiu  Maine  to  Minnesota,  aLso  from  Montana  to  Pacitic,  British 
America. 

35.  White  spruce  (Picea  engelmanni) :  Medium  to  large  sized  tree,  forming  exten- 
sive forests  at  elevations  from  5,000  to  10,000  feet  above  .sea  level;  resembles 
the  preceding,  but  occupies  a  different  statiou.  A  very  important  timber  tree  in 
the  central  :ind  southern  parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Rocky  Mo-intains  from 
Mexico  to  Montana. 

36.  Tide-land  spruce  (Picea  sitchensis) :  A  large-sized  tree,  forming  an  extensive 
coast-belt  forest.     Aloug  the  seacoast  from  Alaska  to  Central  California. 

BASTARD  SPRUCE. — Spruce  or  fir  iu  name  but  resembling  hard  piue  or  larch  in 
the  appearance,  quality,  and  uses  of  its  wood. 

37.  Douglas  spruce  (Pscudotsuga  douglasii)  (yellow  fir,  red  fir,  Oregon  pine):  One 
of  the  most  important  trees  of  the  Western  United  States;  grows  very  larj^e  in 
the  Pacilic  States,  to  fair  size  in  all  parts  of  the  mouutains,  in  Cclor.ido  up  to 
about  10,000  feet  above  sea  level;  forms  extensive  forests,  often  of  pur«^  growth. 
Wood  very  variable,  usually  coarsegrained  and  heavy,  with  very  pronounced 
summer  wood,  hard  and  strong  ("red"  fir),  but  often  fine-grained  :>ud  light 
("yellow"  fir).  It  replaces  hard  piue  and  is  especially  suited  to  he" vy  con- 
struction. From  the  plains  to- the  Pacific  Ocean;  from  Mexico  to  British 
America. 


76  TIMBER. 

TAMARACK.     (See  Larch.) 

YEW.  —  Wood  lieavy,  hard,  extremely  stirt'  and  strong,  of  line  textnre  with  a  ])ale 
yellow  sapwood,  and  an  orange  red  heart;  seasons  well  and  is  quite  durable.  Yew 
is  extensively  iised  for  archery,  bows,  turner's  ware,  etc.  The  yews  form  no 
forests,  but  occur  scattered  with  other  conifers. 

38.  Yew  (Taxus  brevifolia) :  A  small  to  medium  sized  tree  of  the  Pacific  region. 

B BROAD-I^EAVKD  M'OOD!!i  (H.\KD\VOODS). 

Woods  of  complex  and  very  variable  structure  and  therefore  differing  widely  in 
quality,  behavior,  and  consequently  in  upplicability  to  the  arts. 

ASH. — Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  stilt',  quite  tough,  not  durable  in  Conta('t  with 
soil,  straight  grained,  rough  on  the  split  surface  and  coarse  in  texture.  The  wood 
shrinks  moderately,  seasons  withlittle  injury,  stands  well  and  takes  a  good  poli.sh. 
In  carpentry  ash  is  used  for  finishing  lumber,  stairways,  panels,  etc. ;  it  is  used  in 
shipbuilding,  in  the  construction  of  cars,  wagons,  carriages,  etc.,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  farm  implements,  machinery,  and  especially  of  furniture  of  all  kinds,  and 
also  for  harness  work;  for  barrels,  baskets,  oars,  tool  handles,  hoops,  clothespins, 
and  toys.  The  trees  of  the  several  species  of  ash  are  rapid  growers,  of  small  to 
medium  height  with  stout  trunks;  they  form  no  forests,  but  occur  scattered  in 
almost  all  our  broad-leaved  forests. 

39.  White  ash  (Fraxhuts  americana) :  Medium,  sometimes  large  sized  tree,  liasin 
of  the  Ohio,  but  found  from  Maine  to  Minnesota  and  Texas. 

40.  Ked  a.su  (Fraxhiiis  j>«&c'.sce«.s) :  Small-sized  tree.  North  Atlantic  States,  but 
extends  to  the  Mississippi. 

41.  Black  ASH  {Fraxlnus  samhucifolia)  (hoop ash,  grouiu^ ash) :  Medium-sized  tree, 
verj'  common.     Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  southward  to  Virginia  and  Arkansas. 

42.  Blue  ash  (  Fraxinns  quadrangnhita) :  Small  to  medium  sized.  Indiana  and  Illi- 
nois; occurs  from  Michigan  to  Minnesota  and  southward  to  Alabama. 

43.  Green  ash  [Fyaxinus  viridis):  Small-sized  tree.  New  York  to  the  Kocky 
Mountains,  and  southward  to  Florida  and  Arizona. 

44.  Oregon  ash  (Fraxinus  oregana):  Medium-sized  tree.  Western  Washington 
to  California. 

ASPEN.     (See  Poplar.) 
BASSAVOOD. 

45.  B.vsswoOD  (Tilia  americana)  (lime  tree,  American  linden,  liu,  bee  tree): 
Wood  light,  soft,  stiff  but  not  strong,  of  fine  texture,  and  wliite  to  light  brown 
color.  The  wood  shrinks  considerably  in  drying,  works  and  stands  well:  it  is 
used  in  carpentry,  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture  and  wooden  ware,  both 
turned  and  carved,  in  cooperage,  for  toys,  also  for  paneling  of  car  and  carriage 
bodies.  Medium  to  large  sized  tree,  common  in  all  Northern  broad-leaved  for- 
ests; found  throughout  the  Eastern  United  States. 

46.  White  basswood(  Jiiia  heterophylla) :  A  small-sized  tree  most  abundant  in 
the  Alleghany  region. 

BEECH. 

47.  Beech  (Fagus  ferruginen):  Wood  heavy,  iiard,  stiff,  strong,  of  rather  coarse 
texture,  white  to  light  brown,  not  durable  in  the  ground,  and  subject  to  the 
inroads  of  boring  insects;  it  shrinks  and  cheeks  considerably  in  drying,  works 
and  stands  well  and  takes  a  good  polish.  Used  for  furniture,  in  turnery,  for 
handles,  lasts,  etc.  Abroad  it  is  very  extensively  employed  by  the  carpenter, 
millwright,  and  wagon  nuiker,  in  turnery  as  well  as  wood  carving.  The  beech 
is  a  medium-sized  tree,  common,  sometimtjs  forming  forest;  most  abundant  in 
the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  basin,  but  found  from  Maine  to  Wisconsin  and  south- 
ward to  Florida. 

BIRCH. — Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  of  fine  texture;  sapwood  whitish,  heartwood 
in  shades  of  brown  with  red  and  yellow;  very  handsome,  with  satiny  luster, 
equaling  cherry.     The  wood  shrinks  considerably  in  drying,  works   and  stands 


LIST   OP    BROAD-LEAVED    WOODS.  77 

well  and  takes  a  good  ])olish,  but  is  not  durable,  if  exposed.  Birch  is  tised  for 
tinisbing  lumber  in  building,  in  tbo  uiauufacture  of  furniture,  in  wood  turnery 
for  spools,  boxes,  wooden  shoes,  etc.,  for  shoe  lasts  and  pegs,  for  wagon  bubs,  ox 
yokes,  etc.,  also  in  wood  carving.  The  birches  are  niediuni-sized  trees,  form 
extensive  forests  northward  and  occur  8cattere<l  in  all  broad-leaved  forests  of 
the  Easteru  United  States. 

48.  Chkkry  hircii  (Betula  lenta)  (black  birch,  sweet  liirch,  niabogany  Itirch): 
Medium-sized  tree;  very  common.     Maine  to  Michigan  and  to  reiinessee. 

49.  ^Ki.i.ow  Hiiun  (/>e/MZ« /w/ca)  (gray  birch) :  Medium-sized  tree;  common.  Maine 
to  Minnesota  and  southward  to  Tennessee. 

50.  Red  bujch  {Hetula  nUjra)  (river  birch):  Small  to  medium  sized  tree;  very 
common;  lighter  and  less  valuable  than  the  preceding.  New  Kiiglaiid  to  Texas 
and  Missouri. 

51.  Canoe  birch  (/ielida  papifrifera)  (white  birch,  jiajx-r  l)irch) :  Generally  a  small 
tree;  common,  forming  forests;  wood  of  good  (luality  but  lighter.  All  along 
the  northern  boundary  of  United  States  and  northward,  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific. 

BLACK  WALNUT.     {See  Walnut.) 
BLUE  BEECH. 

52.*  Blue  beech  {Carpinus  caroliniana)  (hornbeam,  water  beech,  ironwood) :  Wood 
very  heavy,  hard,  strong,  very  stiff,  of  rather  fine  texture  and  white  color; 
not  durable  in  the  ground;  shrinks  and  checks  greatly,  but  works  and  stands 
well.  Used  chiefly  in  turnery  for  tool  handles,  etc.  Abroad,  much  vised  by 
mill  and  wheel  wrights.  A  small  tree,  largest  in  the  Southwest,  but  found  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  Easteru  United  States. 
BOIS  D'ARC.     (5ee  Osage  ORANGE.) 

BUCKEYE— HORSE  CHESTNUT.— Wool  light,  soft,  not  strong,  often  quite 
tough,  of  line  and  uuiform  texture  and  creamy  white  color.     It  shrinks  consid- 
erably, but  works  and  stands  well.     Used  for  wooden  ware,  artificial  limbs,  paper 
pulp,  and  locally  also  for  building  lumber.     Small-sized  trees,  scattered. 
53.  Ohio  BUCKEYK  (^sctt^Ms  glabra)  (fetid  buckeye):   Allegbanies,  Pennsylvania 

to  Indian  Territorj^ 
.54.  Sweet  buckeye  { JEsculus  fiava) :  Alleghanies,  Peunsylvania  to  Texas. 
BUTTERNUT. 

55.  Butternut  {Jiifilans  cinerea)  (white  walnut):  Wood  very  similar  to  black 
walnut,  but  light,  quite  soft,  not  strong  and  of  light  brown  color.  Used  chielly 
for  iinishing  lumber,  cabinetwork,  and  cooperage.  Medium-sized  tree,  largest 
and  most  common  in  the  Ohio  basin;  Maine  to  Minnesota  and  southward  to 
Georgia  and  Alabama. 

CAT  ALP  A. 

56.  Catalpa  (Ca ;«//>«  speciosa):  Wood  light,  soft,  not  strong,  brittle,  durable,  of 
coarse  texture  and  brown  color;  used  forties  and  posts,  but  well  suited  for  a 
great  variety  of  uses.  Medium-sized  tree;  lower  basin  of  the  Ohio  River,  locally 
common.  Extensively  planted,  and  therefore  promising  to  become  of  some 
importance. 

CHERRY. 

57.  Cherry  (Prunus  serotina):  Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  of  fine  texture;  .sap 
wood  yellowish  white,  heartwood  reddish  to  brown.  The  wood  shrinks  con- 
siderably in  drying,  works  and  stands  well,  takes  a  good  polish,  and  is  much 
esteemed  for  its  beauty.  Cherry  is  chiefly  used  as  a  decorative  finishing  lum- 
ber for  buildings,  cars,  and  boats,  also  lor  furniture  and  in  turnery.  It  is 
becoming  too  costly  for  many  purposes  for  which  it  is  naturally  well  suited. 
The  lumber-furnisliiiig  cherry  of  this  country,  the  wild  black  cherry  (I'ritnua 
serotina),  is  a  small  to  medium  sized  tree,  scattered  tiirougli  many  of  the 
broad-leaved  woods  of  the  western  slope  of  tbe  Alleghanies,  but  found  from 
Michigan  to  Florida  and  west  to  Texas.     Other  speciea  of  this  genus  as  well 


78  TIMBER. 

as  tbe  bawtborne  (Cratwgus)  and  wild  apple  (Pyrus)  arc  not  coininouly  offered 
in  tbe  market.  Tbeir  wood  is  of  tbe  same  cbaracter  as  cberry,  often  oven 
finer,  but  in  small  dimensions. 
CHESTNUT. 
5S.  t'liESTXUT  (Castanca  vulgarix  var.  americana):  Wood  ligbt,  moderately  soft, 
stiii',  not  strong,  of  coarse  texture;  the  sajtwood  ligbt,  the  heartwood  darker 
brown.  It  shrinks  and  checks  considerably  in  dryiug,  works  easily,  stands 
well,  and  is  very  durable.  I'sed  in  cabinetwork.  cooi)erage,  for  railway  ties, 
telegra])h  poles,  and  locally  in  heavy  construction.  Medium-sized  tree,  very 
common  in  the  Allegbanies,  occurs  from  Maine  to  Michigan  and  southward  to 
Alabama. 

59.  Chinquapin  (Castanea  pumi'ta):  A  small-sized  tree,  with  wood  slightly  heavier 
but  otherwise  similar  to  tbe  preceding;  most  common  in  Arkansas,  but  with 
nearly  the  same  range  as  the  chestnut. 

60.  CiiiNQr.vPlx  (Caslanopsis  eln-jisojyhyUa):  A  medium-sized  tree  of  tbe  western 
ranges  of  California  and  Oregon. 

COFFEE  TREE. 

61.  ('oifi:k  thkk  (Ut/mnocladiis  canadensis)  (coft'ee  nut) :  Wood  heavy,  bard,  strong, 
very  stiff,  of  coarse  texture,  durable;  the  sapwood  yellow,  the  heart  wood  red- 
dish brown;  shrinks  and  checks  considerably  in  drying;  works  and  stands 
well  and  takes  a  good  polish.  It  is  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  cabinetwork. 
A  medium  to  large  sized  tree;  not  common.  Pennsylvania  to  Minnesota  and 
Arkansas. 

COTTONWOOD.     (See  PovhAK.) 

CUCUMBER  TREE.     (5ee  Tulip.) 

ELM. — Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  very  tough;  moderately  durable  in  contact  with 
tbe  soil;  conmionly  crossgrained,  difticult  to  split  and  shape,  warps,  and  checks 
considerably  in  drying,  but  stands  well  if  jiroperly  haiulled.  The  broad  sapwood 
whitLsh,  heart  brown,  both  with  shades  of  gray  and  red;  on  split  surl'ace  rough; 
texture  coarse  to  tine;  capable  of  high  polish.  Elm  is  used  in  the  construction  of 
cars,  wagons,  etc.,  in  boat  and  ship  l)uilding,  for  agricultural  implements  and 
machinery;  in  rough  cooperage,  saddlery  and  harness  work,  but  particxilarly  in 
the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  furniture,  where  the  beautiful  bgures,  especially 
those  of  the  tangential  or  bastard  section,  are  .just  beginning  to  be  duly  api)re- 
ciated.  The  elms  are  medium  to  large  sized  trees,  of  fairly  rapid  growth,  with 
stout  trunk,  form  no  forests  of  pure  growth,  but  are  found  scattered  in  all  the 
broad-leaved  woods  of  our  country,  sometimes  forming  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  arborescent  growth. 

62.  Whitk  Elm  {Ulmns  americana)  (Ainerican  elm,  water  elm):  Medium  to 
large  sized  tree,  common.     Maine  tx)  INIinnesota,  southward  to  Florida  and  Texas. 

63.  Rock  klm  (Ulmns  racemosa)  (cork  elm,  hickory  elm,  white  elm,  cliff  elm): 
Medium  to  large  sized  tree.  Michigan,  Ohio,  from  Vermont  to  Iowa,  south- 
ward to  Kentucky. 

64.  Red  klm  {Ulmnx  fulra)  (sli])i)erv  elm,  moose  elm):  Small-sized  tree,  found 
chieHy  along  watercourses.  X(;w  Vf)rk  to  Minnesota,  and  southward  to  Florida 
and  Texas. 

65.  Ckuak  klm  (Ulsnus  crassi/olia):  Small-sized  tree,  <|nite  common.  Arkansas 
and  Texas. 

66.  Wi.N'GKi)  KLM  {rimits  alata)  (Wahoo):  Small-sized  tree,  locally  quite  common. 
Arkansas,  Mi-ssouri,  and  eastern  Virginia. 

GUM. — This  general  term  refers  to  two  kinds  of  wood  usually  distinguished  as  sweet 
or  red  gum,  and  sour,  black,  or  tupelo  gum,  the  former  being  a  relative  of  the 
witch-hazel,  the  latter  belonging  to  the  dogwood  family. 

67.  TUPKLO  {Xi/ssa  sylralica)  (sour  gum.  black  gum) :  Maine  to  Michigan,  and  south- 
ward to  Florida  and  Texas.     Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  tough,  of  line  texture, 


LIST   OF    BROAD-LEAVED    WOODS.  79 

frequently  crossgrained,  of  yellowish  or  grayish  white  color,  hard  to  split  and 
work,  troublesome  in  seasoning,  warps  and  checks  considerably,  and  is  not 
durable  if  exposed;  used  lor  wagon  liiibs,  wooden  ware,  handles,  wooden  shoes, 
etc.  Medium  to  large  sized  trees,  with  straight,  clear  trunks;  locally  (juite 
abundant,  but  never  forming  forests  of  pure  growth. 

68.  TrrioLO  CUM  (.Vi/ssrt  uniflora)  (cotton  gum):  Lower  Mississippi  basin,  north- 
ward to  Illinois  and  eastward  to  Virginia,  otherwise  like  preceding  species. 

69.  SwEKTGiM  {Liqiiidambar  sturacijliia)  (red  gum,  li<iuidambar,  bilsted):  Wood 
rather  heavy,  rather  soft,  (juite  stiff  and  strong,  tough,  conunonly  crossgrained, 
of  iine  texture;  the  broad  sapwood  whitish,  the  heartwood  reddish  bniwn;  the 
wood  shrinks  and  warps  considerably,  but  does  not  check  badly,  stands  well 
when  fully  seasoned,  and  takes  good  polish.  Sweet  gum  is  used  in  carpentry, 
in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  for  cut  veneer,  for  wooden  i)lates,  plaques, 
baskets,  etc.,  also  for  wagon  hubs,  hat  blocks,  etc.  A  large-sized  tree,  very  abun- 
dant, often  the  principal  tree  in  the  swampy  parts  of  the  bottoms  of  the  Lower 
Mississippi  Valley;  occurs  from  New  York  to  Texas  and  from  Indiana  to  Florida. 

HACKBERRY. 

70.  Hacki5E1u:v  (Celtis  occidentalts)  (sugar  berry):  The  handsome  wood  heavy, 
hard,  strong,  quite  tough,  of  moderately  fine  texture,  and  greenish  or  yellowish 
white  color;  shrinks  moderately,  wor'  s  well,  and  takes  a  good  polish.  So  far 
but  little  used  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture.  Medium  to  large  sized  tree, 
locally  quite  common,  largest  in  the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley;  occurs  in  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  Eastern  United  States. 

HICKORY.— Wood  very  heavy,  hard,  and  strong,  proverbially  tough,  of  rather 
coarse  texture,  smooth  .aud  of  straight  grain.  The  broad  sapwood  white,  the  heart 
reddish  nut  brown.  It  dries  slowly,  shrinks  and  checks  considerably  ;  is  not  dura- 
ble iu  the  ground,  or  if  exposed,  and,  especially  the  sapwood,  is  always  subject 
to  the  inroads  of  boring  insects.  Hickory  excels  as  carriage  and  wagon  stock,  but 
is  also  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  implements  and  machinery,  for  tool 
handles,  timber  pins,  for  harness  v.ork,  aud  cooperage.  The  hickories  are  tall 
trees  with  slender  stems,  never  form  forests,  occasionally  small  groves,  but  usually 
occur  scattered  among  other  broad-leaved  trees  in  suitable  localities.  The  follow- 
ing species  all  contribute  more  or  less  to  the  hickory  of  the  markets: 

71.  Shagbark  hickouy  (Ricoria  orafa)  (shellbark  hickory):  A  medium  to  large 
sized  tree,  quite  common;  the  favorite  among  hickories;  best  developed  in  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  basins;  from  Lake  Ontario  to  Texas.  Minnesota  to  Florida. 

72.  MocKKP.xrT  hickory  {Hicoria  aJha)  (black  hickory,  bull  and  black  nut,  big 
bud,  and  white-heart  hickory):  A  medium  to  large  sized  tree,  with  the  same 
range  as  the  foregoing;  common,  especially  in  the  South. 

73.  PiGXUT  HICKORY  (Hicorla  glabra)  (brown  hickory,  black  hickory,  switch-bud 
hickory):  Medium  to  largo  sized  tree,  abundant;  all  Eastern  United  States. 

74.  Bitter  XCT  HICKORY  (  Hicoria  minima)  (,fiwami>  hickory):  A  medium-sized  tree, 
favoring  wet  localities,  with  the  same  range  as  the  preceding. 

75.  Pecax  (Hicoria  pecan)  (Illinois  nut):  A  large  tree,  very  connuon  in  the  fertile 
bottoms  of  the  Western  streams.  Indiana  to  Nebraska  and  southward  to  Lousi- 
ana  and  Texas. 

HOLLY. 

76.  IIoi.iA'  {Ilex  opaca):  Wo(id  of  medium  v/eight,  hard,  strong,  tough,  of  fine 
texture  and  white  color;  works  and  stands  well,  used  for  cabinetwork  aud 
turnery.  A  small  tree,  most  abundant  in  the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley  and 
Gulf  States,  but  occurring  eastward  to  Massachusetts  and  north  t(»  Indiaiiii. 

HORSE-CHESTNUT.     {Sec  Hickeye.) 
IRONWOOD.     (See  Blue  BEECH.) 


80  TIMBER. 

LOCUST. — Tliis  name  applies  to  both  of  the  following: 

77.  Black  l^ncvsr  (Robinia  i)sendn(acia)  (black  locust,  yellow  locust) :  Wood  very 
heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  tough,  of  coarse  texture,  very  durable  in  contact  with 
the  soil,  shrinks  ccuisiderably  and  puffers  in  seasoning;  the  very  narrow  sap- 
wood  yellowish,  tin;  heartwood  brown,  witii  siiades  of  red  and  green.  Used 
for  wagon  hubs,  tree  nails  or  )»ius,  but  espet-ially  for  ties,  posts,  etc.  Abroad  it 
is  much  used  for  furniture  and  f.irin  iniplcuienis  and  also  in  turnery.  Small  to 
medium  sized  tree,  at  home  iii  the  .\llcgliaiiies,  extensively  planted,  especially 
in  the  West. 

78.  Ho.N'EY  LOCUST  (GleditschUi  liiacanthofi)  (black  locu.st,  sweet  locust,  three- 
thomed  acacia):  Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  tough,  of  coarse  texture,  susc«'p- 
tibleof  a  good  polish,  the  narrow  sapwood  yellow,  the  heartwood  brownish  red. 
So  far,  but  little  appreciated  except  for  fencing  and  fuel;  used  to  some  extent 
for  wagon  hubs  and  in  rough  construction.  A  medium-sized  tree,  fouml  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Nebraska,  and  southward  to  Florida  and  Texas;  locally  quite 
abuudant. 

MAGNOLIA      (See  Tulip.) 

MAPLE. — Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  stiff,  and  tough,  of  fine  texture,  frequently 
wav\  -grained,  this  giving  rise  to  "  curly"  and  "blister"  figures;  not  durable  in  the 
ground  or  otherwise  exposed.  Maple  i;:  creamy  white,  with  Suiides  of  light  brown 
in  the  heart;  shrinks  moderately,  seasons,  works  and  stands  well,  wears  smoothly, 
and  takes  a  fine  polish.  The  wood  is  used  for  ceiling,  flooring,  paneling,  stair- 
way, and  other  finishing  lumber  in  house,  ship,  and  car  construction;  it  is  used  for 
the  keels  of  boats  and  ships,  in  the  manufacture  of  implements  and  machinery,  but 
especially  for  furniture,  where  entire  chamlier  sets  of  maple  rival  those  of  oak. 
Maple  is  also  used  for  shoe  lasts  and  other  form  blocks,  for  shoe  pegs,  for  piano 
actions,  school  apparatus,  for  wood  type  in  show  bill  j)rinting,  tool  handles,  in  wood 
carving,  turnery,  and  scroll  work.  The  maples  are  medium-sized  trees,  of  fairly 
rapid  growth;  sometimes  form  forests  and  frequently  constitute  a  large  proportion 
of  the  arborescent  growth. 

79.  SiT..\K  MAPLE  (Acer  sacchanim)  (hard  maple,  rock  maple):  Medium  to  large 
sized  tree,  very  common,  forms  considerable  forests.  Maine  to  Minnesota,  abun- 
dant, with  l)irch,  in  parts  of  the  pineries;  southward  to  northern  Florida;  most 
abundant  in  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

60.  Red  maple  (Acer  7'uhrum)  (swamp  or  water  maple):  Medium-sized  tree. 
Like  the  preceding,  but  scattered  ahmg  water  courses  and  other  moist  iocaliies 

81.  Silver  MAPLE  (Acer  saccharinum)  (soft  maple,  silver  maple):  Medium-sized, 
common;  wood  lighter,  softer,  inferior  to  hard  maple,  and  usually  oftered  in 
small  quantities  and  held  separate  in  the  market,  ^'alley  of  the  Ohio,  but 
occurs  from  Maine,  to  Dakota  and  southward  to  Florida. 

82.  Broad-leafed  mavlv^  (Acer  ^nacrophi/Hum):  Medium-sized  tree,  forms  consid- 
erable forests,  and  like  the  preceding  has  a  lighter,  softer,  and  less  valuable 
wood.     Pacific  Coast. 

MULBERRY. 

83.  Red  mulberry  (Moms  rubra) :  Wood  moderately  heavy,  hard,  strong,  rather 
tough,  of  coarse  texture,  durable;  sajjwood  whitish,  heart  yellow  to  orange 
brown;  shrinks  and  checks  considerably  in  drying;  works  and  stands  well- 
Used  in  cooperage  and  locally  in  shipbuilding  and  in  the  manufacture  of  farm 
implements.  A  small-sized  tree,  common  in  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys, 
but  widely  distributed  in  the  Eastern  United  States. 

OAK — Wood  very  variable,  usually  very  heavy  and  hard,  very  strong  and  tough? 
porous,  and  of  coarse  texture;  the  sapwood  whitish,  the  heart  "oak"  brown  to 
reddish  brown.  It  shrinks  and  checks  badly,  giving  trouble  in  seasoning,  but 
stands  well,  is  durable,  and  little  subject  to  attacks  of  insects.  Oak  is  used' 
for  many  purposes:  in  shipbuilding,  for  heavy  construction,  in  common  carpentry, 


LIST   OF   BROAD-LEAVED   WOODS.  81 

in  furniture,  car,  and  wagon  work,  cooperage,  turnery,  and  even  in  wood  carving; 
also  in  tlie  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  farm  implements,  wooden  mill  machinery, 
for  piles  and  wharves,  railway  ties,  etc.  The  oaks  are  medium  to  large  sized  trees, 
forming  the  predominant  part  of  a  largo  portion  of  our  broad-leaved  forests,  so 
that  these'are  generally  ''oak  forests"  though  they  always  contain  a  considerable 
proportion  of  other  kinds  of  trees.  Three  well-marked  kinds,  white,  red,  and  live 
oak,  are  distinguished  and  kept  separate  in  the  market.  Of  the  two  principal 
kinds  white  oak  is  the  stronger,  tougher,  less  porous,  and  more  durable.  Red  oak, 
is  usually  of  coarser  texture,  more  porous,  often  brittle,  less  durable,  and  even 
more  troublesome  in  seasoning  than  white  oak.  In  carpentry  and  furniture  work, 
red  oak  brings  about  the  same  pric6  at  present  as  whi  ,  oak.  The  red  oaks  every- 
where accompany  the  white  oaks,  and,  like  the  latter,  are  usually  represented 
by  several  species  in  any  given  locality.  Live  oak,  once  largely  employed  in 
shipbuilding,  possesses  all  tiie  good  (pialities  (excei)t  that  of  size)  of  Avhite  oak, 
even  to  a  greater  degree.  It  is  one  of  the  heaviest,  hardest,  and  most  durable 
building  timbers  of  this  country  ;  in  structure  it  resembles  the  red  oaks,  but  is 
much  less  porous. 

84.  White  oak  (Que7-cus  alba) :  Medium  to  large  sized  tree,  common  in  the  East- 
ern States,  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys;  occurs  throughout  Eastern  United 
States. 

85.  Bur  oak  {Quercus  macrocarpa)  (mossy-cup  oak,  over-cup  oak):  Large-sized 
tree,  locally  abundant,  common.  Bottoms  ^\est  of  Mississippi;  range  farther 
■west  than  preceding. 

86.  Swamp  white  oak  {(Quercus  bicolor):  Large-sized  tree,  common.  ^lost  abun- 
dant in  the  Lake  States,  but  with  range  as  in  white  oak. 

87.  Yellow  oak  (Quercus  iirinoidcs)  (chestnut  oak,  chinciuapin  oak):  Medium- 
sized  tree.     Southern  Alleghanies,  eastward  to  Massachusetts. 

88.  Basket  oak  {Quercus  micltauxii)  (cow  oak):  Large-sized  tree,  locally  abun- 
dant; lower  Mississippi  and  eastward  to  Delaware. 

89.  Over-cup  oak  (Quercus  hjrata)  (swamp  white  oak,  swamp  i)ost  oak):  Medium 
to  large  sized  tree,  rather  restricted ;  ranges  as  in  the  preceding. 

90.  Post  oak  {Quercus  obtusiloia)  (iron  oak):  Medium  to  large  sized  tree. 
Arkansas  to  Texas,  eastward  to  New  England  and  northward  to  Michigan. 

91.  Whitk  OAK  {Quercus  (luraiidii):  Medium  to  small  sized  tree.  Texas,  eastward 
to  Alabama. 

92.  White  OAK  ( ^«erc/<s  garrijana):  Medium  to  large  sized  tree.  Washington  to 
California. 

93.  White  oak  (Quercus  lobata):  Medium  to  large-sized  tree ;  largest  oak  on  the 
Pacitic  Coast;  California. 

94.  Red  OAK  (Quercus  rubra)  (black  oak):  Medium  to  large  sized  tree;  common 
in  all  parts  of  its  range.     Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  southward  to  the  Gulf. 

95.  Black  OAK  (Quercus  tinctoria),  (yellow  oak):  Medium  to  large  sized  tree;  very 
common  in  the  Southern  States,  but  occurring  north  as  far  as  Minnesota,  and 
eastward  to  Maine. 

96.  Spanish  oak  (Quercus  falcafa),  (red  oak):  Medium  sized  tree,  common  in  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  region,  but  found  from  Texas  to  New  York,  and  north 
to  Missouri  and  Kentucky. 

97.  ^CARLKT  OAK  (Quercus  cocrinea):  Medium  to  large  sized  tree;  best  developed  in 
the  lower  basin  of  the  Ohio,  but  found  from  Maine  to  Missouri,  and  from  Minne- 
sota to  Florida. 

98.  Pin  oak  (Quercus  j)alustris)  (swamp  Spanish  oak,  Avateroak):  Medium  to 
large  sized  tree,  common  along  borders  of  streams  and  swamps.  Arkansas  to 
Wisconsin,  and  eastward  to  the  Alleghanies. 

99.  Willow  oak  (Quercus  phelloa)  (peach  oak):  Small  to  medium  sized  tree. 
New  York  to  Texas,  and  northward  to  Kentucky. 

3521— No.  10 6 


82  TIMBER. 

100.  Water  oak  (Quercus  aquafica)  (duck  oak,  possum  oak,  punk  oak):  Medium 
to  large  sized  tree,  of  extremely  rapid  growth.  Eastern  Gulf  States,  eastward 
to  Delaware,  and  northward  to  Missouri  and  Kentucky. 

101.  Live  OAK  ((?Merci/8  virens):  Small-sized  tree,  scattered  along  the  coast  from 
Virginia  to  Texas. 

102.  Live  oak  (Quercus  chryxolepix) .  (maul  oak,  Valparaiso  oak):  Medium-sizfil 
tree;  California. 

OSAGE  ORANGE. 

103.  Osa(;e  or.ANiii:  {Madura  auranliaca)  (Hois  d'Arc):  Wood  very  heavy,  ex- 
ceedingly bard,  strong,  not  tough,  of  modenitelj'  coarse  texture,  and  very  dura 
ble;  sapwood  yellow,  heart  brown  on  the  end,  yellow  on  longitudinal  faces, 
soon  turning  grayish  brown  if  exposed;  it  shrinks  considerably  in  drying,  but 
once  dry  it  stands  unusually  well.  Formerly  much  used  for  wheel  stock  in  the 
dry  regions  of  Texas;  otherwise  employed  for  posts,  railw'ay  ties,  etc.  Seems 
too  little  appreciated;  it  is  well  suited  for  turned  ware  and  especially  for  wood 
carving.  A  small-sized  tree,  of  fairly  rapid  growth,  scattered  through  the  rich 
bottoms  of  Arkansas  and  Texas. 

PERSIMMON. 

104.  Peksi.mmon  (Diospi/ros  viryiniana):  Wood  very  heavy  and  hard,  strong  and 
tough;  resembles  hickory,  but  is  of  finer  texture;  the  broad  sapwood  cream 
color,  the  heart  black  ;  used  in  turnery  for  shuttles,  plane  stocks,  shoe  lasts,  etc. 
Small  to  medium  sized  tree,  common  and  best  developed  in  the  ]>ower  Ohio 
\'alley,but  occurs  Irom  New  York  to  Texas  and  Missouri. 

POPLAR  AND  COTTONWOOD  (See  also  Tulip  wood).— Wood  light,  very  soft, 
not  strong,  of  fine  texture  and  whitish,  grayish  to  yellowish  color,  usually  with 
a  satiny  luster.  The  wood  shrinks  moderately  (some  crossgrained  forms  warp 
excessively),  but  checks  little;  is  easily  worked,  but  is  not  durable.  Used  as 
building  and  furniture  lumber,  in  cooperage  for  sugar  and  flour  barrels,  for 
crates  and  boxes  (especially  cracker  boxes),  for  wooden  ware  and  paper  pulp. 

105.  Cottonwood  (Populus  monilifera) :  Large  sized  tree;  Ibrms  considerable  forests 
along  many  of  the  Western  streams,  and  furnishes  most  of  the  cottonwood  of 
the  market.  Mississippi  Valley  and  west;  New  England  to  the  Kocky  Moun- 
tains. 

106.  Balsam  (Populus  bahamifera)  (balm  of  (Jilead):  Medium  to  large  sized  tree; 
common  all  along  the  northern  l)ouiulary  of  the  United  States. 

107.  Black  cottonwood  (Populus  trichocarpa):  The  largest  deciduous  tree  of 
Washington;  very  common.     Northern  Eocky  Mountains  and  Pacific  region. 

108.  Cottonwood  (Populus  fremonlil  v&t.  tcislizeni):  Medium  to  large  sized  tree, 
common.     Texas  to  California. 

109.  Poplar  (Populus  (jrandidentata):  Medium-sized  tree,  chiefly  used  for  jtulj). 
Maine  to  Minnesota  and  southward  along  the  Alleghanies. 

110.  ASPKN  (Populus  tremuloides) :  Small  to  medium  sized  tree,  often  forming 
extensive  forests  and  covering  burued  areas.  Maine  to  Washington  and  north- 
ward, south  in  the  Western  mountains  to  California  and  New  Mexico. 

SOUR  GUM.  (SeeGvM.) 
RED  GUM.  (^ceGuM.) 
SASSAFRAS. 

111.  Sa.ssafkas  (Sassafras  sassafras):  Wood  light,  soft,  not  strong,  brittle,  of 
coarse  texture,  durable;  sapwood  yellow,  heart  orange  brown.  Used  in  coop- 
erage, for  skiffs,  fencing,  etc.  Medium-sized  tree,  largest  in  the  Lower  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  from  New  England  to  Texas  and  from  Michigan  to  Florida. 

SWEET  GUM.     (5ceGuM.) 
SYCAMORE. 

112.  Sycamore  (Platanus  occidentalis)  (button  wood,  button-ball  tree,  water 
beech):  Wood  moderately  heavy,  quite  hard,  stiff,  strong,  tough,  usually 
crossgrained,  of  coarse  texture,  and  white  to  light  brown  color;  the  wood  is 


LIST    OF    RROAJ>LEAVED    WOODS.  S3 

hard  to  split  and  work,  shrinks  iiiodcratelj-,  warps  and  checks  conjiderably,  but 
stands  well.  It  is  used  extensively  for  drawers,  backs,  bottoms,  etc.,  in  cabinet- 
work, for  tobacco  boxes,  in  cooperage,  and' also  for  linishing  lumber,  wlicre  it  has 
too  long  been  nndcrrated.  A  largo  tree,  of  rapid  growtli,  common  and  largest 
in  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys,  at  home  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Eastern 
United  States.     The  California  species — 

113.  I'hiiaiuis  raccmoDU  resembles  in  its  wood  the  Eastern  form. 
TULIP  WOOD. 

114.  Tulip  tree  (Liriodendron  tnlipifera)  (yellow  poplar,  white  wood):  Wood 
quite  variable  in  weight,  usually  light,  soft,  stiff  but  not  strong,  of  tine  texture, 
and  yellowish  color;  the  wood  shrinks  considerably,  but  seasons  without  much 
injury;  works  and  stands  remarkably  well.  T'sed  for  siding,  for  paneling  and 
finishing  lumber  in  house,  car,  and  ship  building,  for  sideboards  and  panels  of 
wagons  and  carriages;  also  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  implements  and 
machinery,  for  ]>ump  logs,  and  almost  every  kind  of  common  wooden  ware,  I>oxes, 
shelving,  drawers,  etc.  An  ideal  wood  for  the  carver  and  toy  man.  A  large  tree, 
docs  not  form  forests,  but  is  quite  common,  especially  iu  the  Ohio  Basin  ;  occurs 
from  New  England  to  Missouri  and  southward  to  Florida. 

115.  CUCUMBEK  TUEE  (.]fagnolia  acuminata) :  A  medium-sized  tree,  most  common  in 
the  Southern  AUeghanies,  but  distributed  from  New  York  to  Arkansas,  southward 
to  Alabama  and  northward  to  Illinois.  Kesembling,  and  probably  confounded 
with,  tulip  wood  iu  the  markets. 

TUPELO.     (See  Gum.) 
WALNUT. 

116.  Black  walxut  {Juglans  nigra):  Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  of  coarse  texture; 
the  narrow  sapw  )od  whitish,  the  heartwood  chocolate  brown.  The  wood  shrinks 
moderately  in  drying,  works  and  stands  well,  takes  a  good  polish,  is  quite  hand- 
some, and  has  been  for  a  long  time  the  favorite  cabinet  wood  in  this  country. 
Walnut,  formerly  used  even  for  fencing,  has  become  too  costly  for  ordinary  uses, 
and  is  to-day  employed  largely  as  a  veneer,  for  inside  finish  and  cabinetwork; 
also  in  turnery,  for  gunstocks,  etc.  Black  walnut  is  a  large  tree,  with  stout  trunk, 
of  rapid  growth,  and  was  formerly  quite  abundant  throughout  the  Alleghany 
region,  occurring  from  New  England  to  Texas,  and  from  Michigan  to  Florida. 

WHITE  WALNUT.     (See  Buttehxut.) 

WHITE  WOOD.     (-See  Tulip,  and  also  Basswood.) 

YELLOW  POPLAR.     (SeeTui.iP.) 


IISTDEX. 


Page. 

Acetic  acifl  from  wood  vinegar 53 

Age,  inllnence  on  stiffness 39 

Annual  rings  as  means  of  distinction 60 

in  oak 18 

manner  of  formation  in  conifers 14 

record  of  age 12 

regularity 14 

*'  Bastard ''  face,  explanation 16,  20 

greater  shrinkage 35 

Bending.     (.See  Flexibility  and  Cross-breaking.) 

Bird's-eye  grain 23 

Bled  pine  as  strong  as  unbled 51 

Bluing  a  cause  of  decay .55 

Broad-leaved  woods,  definition 12 

structuie 18-23 

Casehardeuing 31,  36 

Cellulose 1 51,  53 

Charcoal 53 

Checking 34,35,86 

influence  of  time  of  felling 57 

Chemical  properties 51-54 

Classification  of  trees 11, 12 

Cleavability 48 

Climate,  influence  on  weight  and  strength 51 

Color  of  heartwood,  causes 13 

as  means  of  distinction 60 

Composition  of  wood,  cheuiical 52 

Compression,  table  of  difl'erent  species 44 

Coniferous  woods,  definition 12 

sap  and  heart 13 

anatomical  structure 16 

ConsHmption  of  wood  per  capita 5 

Creosote,  how  obtained 53 

Cross-breaking  strength 41-43 

table  of  different  species 43 

Crossgrain 22 

influence  on  bending  strength 41 

Curly  grain 22 

"Dead,"  as  applied  to  wood 24 

Decaj",  causes 55 

prevention 56, 57 

Diffuse-porous,  definition 64 

Distillation  of  wood 52,53 

Distinguishing  features  of  wood 59 

Dormant  buds  in  burls '- 23 

85 


86  INDEX. 

Page. 

Drying  wood 30 

Dry  kilns,  behavior  ol  wood 30,  31 

Durability 54-58 

list  of  species 57 

Elasticity,  modulus 39 

inlluence  on  splitting - 48 

Extreme  liber 42 

Eactor  of  safety 40 

Felling  time,  influence 51,57 

Flexibility 49 

Fuel  value 52 

Fungus  producing  decay,  described 55, 56 

Grain  of  wood 21-23 

limbs 23 

Growtli,  manner 12 

Hardness 47 

Hardwoods,  definition 12 

Heartwood,  definition 13 

Heating  power 52 

Heat,  ell'ect  of  high  temperature  (sec  also  Distillation) 80,  31,  36 

Hickory,  cause  of  toughness 50 

Honeycombing 11,  36 

Identification  of  woods,  how  to  proceed 62 

Ignorance  regarding  woods,  reasons 5 

Immersion,  effect 24,  30,  31.  36,  50 

Impregnating  against  decay 56,  58 

Inspection , 6,  7,  8 

Kiln  drying,  influence  on  durability 57 

Kilns.     {See  Dry  kilns.) 

Knots 23 

effect  of  their  position 41, 44 

influence  on  bending  strength 41 

cleavability - 48 

flexibility 49 

Lampblack 54 

"Light"  wood 53 

Lignin 51 

"Live"  timber 24 

Lunes  in  limbs 15 

Manner  of  sawing  affects  strength  and  other  qualities 8, 9 

Mechanical  properties 37-51 

influence  in  application,  practical  conclusions 50 

Medullary  rays.     (See  Pith  rays.) 

Mirrors 20 

Modulus  of  rupture 42 

Moisture 29-31 

during  the  seasons 29 

varies  in  tree 29 

eflect  on  .shearing 46 

influence  on  stillness 39 

bending  strength 41 

strength 8, 46 

cleavability 48 

flexibility 49 


INDEX.  87 

Page. 

Non-porons  woods,  definition 64 

Odor  .    24 

Piling  or  stacking 31 

Pine,  bled,  as  strong  as  nn'ded 51 

Pitb  rays  in  conifers 17 

of  broad-leaved  trees 20 

proportion,  in  pine 34 

cause  of  checking 34 

Pits  bordered 17 

Pores,  description 18 

their  importance 19 

afiecting  weight  and  strength 27 

used  lu  distinguishing  woods 61,  64 

Pulp 54 

Kesin  ducts 16, 18 

Resonance 24 

Rift-sawed  boards,  behavior  in  seasonitfg 36 

Riug-porons  woods,  definition 64 

Rosin 53, 54 

Sapwood  of  conifers 13 

shrinks  more  than  heartwood 36 

Sawing,  manner  afi'ects  strength .^ 8,  9 

Seasoning,  rate 30 

methods 31 

influence  on  bending  strength 41 

hardness 47 

Shearing  45, 46 

table  of  difl^'erent  species '.  46 

across  grain 47 

Shocks,  resistance 49 

Shrinkage  fully  discussed 30,  32-37 

tangential,  influence  of  summer  wood  and  spring  wood 35 

sap  and  heart  wood 36 

table  for  difi'erent  species 37 

conifers  and  broad-leaved  trees 36 

Soaking,  eftects , 21,30,31,36,50 

Soot ■■ 54 

Specific  gravity  (see  also  Weight ) 25 

Spring  wood,  definition 15 

structure  in  coniferous  wood 17 

oak 19,21 

Stiffness 38-41 

table  of  different  species 41 

Strength  of  wood.     (See  Mechanical  properties.) 

Structural  aggregates  of  a  stick 9 

Structure  of  coniferous  wood 12-18 

use  of  its  knowledge H 

of  wood  of  ))road-leaved  trees 18-23 

anatomical,  of  conifers Ifi 

broad-leaved  trees 20,  21 

Summer  wood,  definition ^'^ 

color 1 ' 

proportion  in  different  parts  of  tree 15, 16 

of  coniferous  wood  . . .' - 17 

oak 19.^1 


88  INDEX. 

Page. 

Swelling  by  immersion 36 

influence  on  strength 47 

Tannin 54 

Tar 53 

Tension 43 

table  of  different  species 44 

Testing  timber 38 

Tongbu.ss 46,49 

Tracbeiils 17 

Trees,  classification 11, 12 

Turpentine 53 

Venetian 54 

Use  of  -wood.     (See  List  of  woods,  p.  72.) 

Vessels  in  spring  wood,  proportion 19 

Warping 36 

Water  in  wood,  table  (see  also  Moisture  and  .Sliriukage) 31 

Weight 25-28 

different  species,  table 28 

distribution  in  tree 26,  27 

influence  on  cleavability 48 

.'^tifl'ness 39 

strength 46 

spring  wood,  how  aflected  by  moisture 8,  26 

Wood  pulp 54 

spirits 53 

vinegar 53 

"  Working  " 31,  37 

o 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF   AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU  OF  FORESTRY-BULLETIN  Nu.  Bl. 


GIFFORD    PINCHOT,   Forester. 


mm  nn  in  mimw  m  mm^. 


PREPARED  IN  COOPERATION  WITH 


THE  SOCIETY  OF  AMERICAN   FORESTERS. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE, 
1905. 


USTRATION. 


Page. 
Plate  I.   Forest  regions  of  the  United  States 29 

2 


LETTER  OF  TRAXSMITTAL. 


United  States  Department  of  Ackiculture, 

Bureau  of  Forestry, 
Was/dngfrm,  D.  C,  May  15,  1905. 
Sir:  1  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  manuscript  entitled 
•'Terms  used  in  Forestry-  and  Lo*iging,"  prepared  in  cooperation  with 
the  Society  of  American  Foresters,  and  to  recommend  its  ]iublication 
as  Bulletin  No.  61  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry. 

The  publication  of  this  bulletin  in  its  present  form  would  have  been 
impossible  without  the  coop.M'ation  of  many  lumbermen,  and  of  prac- 
tically all  the  trained  foresters  in  the  United  States. 
Verv  respectfull}^ 

GiFFORD   PiNCHOT, 

Forester. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

8 


TERMS  USED  IN  FORESTRY  AND  LOGGING. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  terms  in  forestry  which  form  a  part  of  this  bulletin  comprise 
the  English  forest  terminolog-y  used  in  this  country,  and  the  more 
important  German  and  French  equivalents.  Many  entirely  new  terms, 
and  modifications  of  terms  already  in  use,  are  included  to  meet  the 
specific  needs  of  American  forestr3^  The  Bureau  of  Forestry  will 
follow  this  terminology^  closely  in  all  branches  of  its  work,  and  it  is 
hoped  that  foresters  generally  in  the  United  States  will  still  further 
standardize  it  b}^  use. 

The  terms  in  logging  comprise  those  commonly  employed  in  work 
in  the  woods.  Words  and  phrases  which  are  merel}^  slang,  those 
whose  use  is  so  limited  as  to  be  of  no  practical  importance,  and  those 
of  wide  application  which  are  in  standard  dictionaries,  have  been 
omitted.  No  terms  used  in  the  mill  or  to  describe  its  product,  or  relat- 
ing to  tie  making,  turpentining,  the  production  of  maple  sugar,  and 
other  industries  which  are  not  essentially  a  part  of  the  lumberman's 
work,  are  included.  A  list  of  such  terms  is  now  in  preparation  and 
will  appear  in  another  edition  of  this  bulletin. 

Suggestions  for  the  correction  or  enlargement  of  the  present  list 
are  invited,  and  ma}'^  be  sent  to  the  Forester. 

TERMS  i:n^  forestry. 

[Terms  recommended  for  use  are  defined.    Terms  not  recommended  are  inserted  as  synonyms.] 

Absolute  forest  land.     Land  fit  only  for  forest  growth. 

Syn. :  absolute  forest  soil.     G.,  Holzboden.     F.,  sol  forestier. 
Absolute  forest  soil.     See  Absolute  forest  land. 
Absolute  form  fiictor.     See  Form  factor. 

Accident  yield.    Trees  which  are  cut  on  account  of  accident,  as,  for  example,  dam- 
age by  wind,  snow,  insects,  or  fire. 

G.,  Vorgriffnutzung,  Calamitiitsnutzung.     F.,  Produits  accidentels. 
Accretion,  n.     Increase  in  diameter  or  height;  distinguished  from  increment,  increase 

in  volume. 
Accretion  borer.     An  instrument  for  determining  the  growth  in  diameter  of  stand- 
ing trees.     It  consists  of  a  hollow  auger,  which,  when  bored  into  a  tree,  extracts  a 
section  showing  the  annual  rings. 

Syn.:  increment  borer,  increment  gauge.     G.,   Zuwachsbohrer.     F.,  sonde  de 
Pressler. 

5 


6  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

Accretion  cutting.     See  Accretion  thinning. 

Accretion  tliinning.  A  thinning  made  specitically  to  increase  the  rate  of  growth 
in  (liaiiH'ter  of  the  trees  which  are  left  standing.     See  Thinning. 

Svn.:  accretion  cutting,     (i.,  Lichtungshieb.      F.,  coup  d'isolenient. 
Acid  Inuiius.     See  Sour  humus. 
Actual  merchantable  lengrtli.     .SV^  Used  length. 
.Vctual  merchantable  volume.     See  Used  volume. 

Advance  srrowth,  //.     Young  trees  which  have  sprung  up  in  accidental  openings  in 
the  forest,  or  under  the  forest  cover  l)efore  reproduction  (!uttings  are  begun.     See 
Volunteer  growth. 
G.,  Vorwuchs.     F.,  semis  pr^existant. 
After-5rr«»wtll,  n.     Young  trees  which  have  sprung  up  as  the  result  of  reproduction 
cuttings. 

G.,  Nachwuchs.     F.,  repeuplement  naturel. 
Age  class.     All  trees  in  a  stand  whose  ages  are  within  given  limits. 

G.,  Altersklasse.     F.,  classe  d'^ge. 
All-aged  forest.     See  Many-aged  forest. 

Annual  rinsj;.    The  layer  of  wood  produced  by  the  diameter  growth  of  a  tree  in  one 
year,  as  seen  on  a  cross  section.     See  False  ring. 
G.,  Jahrring,  Jahresschicht.     F.,  couche  annuelle,  couche  d'accroissement. 

.Vnnual  working.     See  Working. 
Arithmetical  mean  sample  tree.    See  Sample  tree. 
Artificial  I'orni  factor.     See  Form  factor. 
Artificial  reproduction.    See  Reproduction. 

Aspect,  ;;.  The  direction  toward  which  a  slope  faces.  The  eight  main  points  of 
the  compass,  N.,  NE.,  E.,  SE.,  S.,  SW.,  W.,  NW.,  are  distinguished  in  forest 
description. 

Syn. :  exposure.     G.,  Lage.     F.,  exposition. 
Back  Are.    A  fire  started  purposely  some  distance  ahead  of  a  lire  which  is  to  be 
fought.     The  back  fire  is  intended  to  bum  only  against  the  wind,  so  that  when  the 
two  fires  meet,  both  n^iust  go  out  for  lack  of  fuel. 

Syn.:  counter  fire.     G.,  Gegenfeuer.     F.,  contre  feu. 
Ball  planting.     A  method  of  transplanting  young  trees  with  balls  or  lumps  of  earth 
around  the  roots. 

G.,  Ballenpflanzung.     F.,  plantation  en  motte. 
Bark  blazer.    See  Scratcher. 
Bark  gouge.    See  Scratcher. 

Basal  area.     The  area  of  a  cross  section  of  a  tree,  or  the  sum  of  such  areas. 
Blank,  n.     An  opening  in  the  forest  where,  from  any  cause,  very  few  or  no  trees  are 
growing. 

G.,  Blosse.     F.,  vide. 
Block,  n.     The  unit  of  management  treated  in  a  working  plan.     A  block  contains 
always  two,  but  usually  many  more,  compartments. 
G.,  Block.     F.,  serie  d'exploitation. 
Board  foot.     The  contents  of  a  board  1  foot  square  and  1  inch  thick.     The  common 

unit  of  measure  for  logs  and  lumber  in  the  United  States. 
Board  measure.    The  standard  of  lumber  measurement,  the  unit  of  which  is  the 
board  foot. 
Syn.:  board  scale. 


TERMS    IN    FORESTRY.  7 

Board  rule.  A  graduated  stick  f(ir  detennininj!;  the  eontents  of  boards.  The  num- 
ber of  board  feet  in  boards  of  given  widths  and  lengths  is  shown  upon  the  stick. 

Board  scale.     See  Board  measure. 

Bole,  n.     St'e  Stem. 

Breast liisrli.  n.     At  or  Iiaving  a  iieightof  4^  feet  above  the  ground. 

Burn,  )i.     An  area  over  which  fire  has  run  to  the  noticeable  injury  of  the  forest. 

Caliper,  n.     An  instrument  for  measuring  the  diameter  of  trees  or  logs,  usually  con- 
si.>iting  of  a  graduated  l)eam  to  which  is  attached  one  fixed  and  one  sliding  arm. 
G.,  Kluppe.     F.,  compas  forestier. 

Canopy,  v.     See  Crown  cover. 

Class  sample  tree.    See  Sample  tree. 

Clean  cuttinsj:.     1.  The  cutting  of  the  entire  stand. 

Syn.:  clear  cutting.     G.,  Kahlschlag.     F.,  coupe  blanche,  coupe  a  blanc  etoc. 
2.   An  area  upon  which  the  entire  stand  has  been  cut. 

Clean  cutting  method.  A  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  which  the  entire 
stand  is  cut  at  one  time  and  reproduction  is  secured  by  sowing  or  planting.  See 
Forest  management. 

G.,  Kahlschlagwirtschaft.     F.,  methode  par  coupe  unique. 

Cleaning,  n  A  thinning  made  in  a  stand  which  has  not  reached  the  small-pole 
stage.  Its  main  object  is  to  remove  trees  of  undesirable  form  and  species.  See 
Thinning. 

G.,  Reinigungshieb.     F.,  nettoiement. 

Clear  cutting.     See  Clean  cutting. 

Clear  length.  In  silvics,  that  portion  of  the  stem  of  a  tree  free  from  branches.  In 
forest  measurements  the  meaning  of  the  term  varies  with  the  species  measured 
and  the  purpose  of  the  measurements.  For  example,  clear  length  is  in  some  cases 
used  to  designate  that  portion  of  the  stem  entirely  free  from  branches,  in  others 
that  portion  free  from  dead  branches,  or  from  growing  branches  of  a  given  size. 
Syn.:  clear  trunk.     G.,  Stamm.     F.,  tige.  "^ 

Clear  trunk.     See  Clear  length. 

Closed,  a.     See  Crown  density. 

Combined  cropping.     The  combination  of  forest  and  field  crops  on  the  same  area. 
G.,  Waldfeldbau.     F.,  culture  agricole  et  sylvicole  combinee. 

Communal  forest.     See  Town  forest. 

Compartment,  /;.     The  unit  of  area  treated  in  the  working  i)lan.     The  size  and  the 
shape  of  compartments  are  determined  mainly  by  topograi)hic  features. 
G.,  Abteilung,  Jagen.     F.,  parcelle,  division,  compartiment. 
If  a  compartment  contains  a  stand  varying  greatly  in  composition,  age,  or  needs, 
it   may   be   divided   into    two   or   more   suhcoinpartmeutt,   which    may   be   either 
temporary  or  permanent. 

Compartment  line.  The  boundary  of  a  compartment.  It  may  be  marked  by  a 
road,  a  ride,  or  a  natural  feature,  such  as  a  stream  or  the  crest  of  a  ridge.  In 
Europe,  when  other  demarcation  is  wanting,  clean  cuttings  upon  narrow  strips 
are  made  to  mark  the  boundaries  of  a  compartment.  These  are  known  as  rides 
(G.,  Schneisse.  F.,  laie).  A  ride  which  separates  two  cutting  series,  and  thus  runs 
parallel  to  the  prevailing  wind  direction,  is  called  a  major  ride  (G.,  Wirtschafts- 
streifen.  F.,  laie  sommiere),  while  one  which  completes  the  demarcation  of  a 
compartment  is  known  as  a  minor  ride  (G.,  Nebenschneisse.     F.,  layon). 

Compartment  system.    See  Stand  method. 


8  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

Composite  forest.     A  forest  in  which  both  seedlings  and  sprouts  occur  in  consider- 
able ninuber.     It  may  be  either  pure  or  mixed. 
Syn. :  mixed  seedhng  and  sprout  forest. 
Composite  system.     One  of  the  three  great  systems  of  forest  mana{,ement.     Under 
it  reproductinii  is  secured  by  both  sprouts  and  seedUngs.    .S'e*' Forest  management. 
Conservative  lumbering.     Practical  forestry;  any  method  of  hnnbering  which  per- 

jjctuates  the  forest  by  use. 
Conversion,  n.     A  chiuge  from  one  system  or  metht)d  of  forest  management  to 
another,  as  fnjni  the  sprout  system  to  the  seed  system. 
().,  Ul)erfuhrung,  Umwandlung.     F.,  conversion. 
Conversion  period.    The  period  during  which  the  cliange   from  one  system  or 

method  of  forest  management  to  another  is  effected. 
Coppice,  coppice  forest.    See  Sprout  forest. 
Coppice  metliod.     See  Sprout  method. 
Coppice  slioot.     >See  Sprout. 
Coppice  system.    See  Sprout  system. 
Coppice  >vith  standards.     See  Reserve  sprout  forest. 
Connter  lire.     See  Back  fire. 

Crown,  )i.  In  silvics,  the  upper  part  of  a  tree,  including  the  living  branches  with 
their  foliage.  In  forest  measurements  the  use  of  the  term  varies  with  the  kind 
of  tree  and  the  purpose  of  the  measurements.  For  example,  crown  may  be  used 
to  designate  the  whole  leaf  and  branch  system,  or  that  portion  of  it  above  a  dead 
or  a  growing  branch  of  a  given  size.  In  tree  description  the  crown  is  described  as 
long  or  short,  broad  or  narrow,  compact  or  ragged,  conical  or  flat. 
G.,  Krone.  F.,  cime. 
Crown  canopy.    See  Crown  cover. 

Crown  class.     All  trees  in  a  stand  occupying  a  similar  position  in  the  crown  cover. 
DomiiKtnl,   intermediate,  overtopped,  and  mppresKed  trees  each  constitute  a  crown 
class. 
Crown  cover.     The  canopy  formed  by  the  crowns  of  all  the  trees  in  a  forest,  or,  in 
an  irregular  forest,  by  the  crowns  of  all  trees  in  a  sp«3citied  crown  class. 

Syn.:   canopy,  crown   canopy,   leaf  canopy.      G.,   Kronendach,   Beschirmung. 
F.,  convert,  voute  foliacee. 
Crown  density.    The  density  of  the  crowns  of  the  trees  in  a  forest;  it  is  usually 
measured  by  the  extent  to  which  the  ground  is  shaded. 
G.,  Beschirmungsdichte.     F.,  dpaisseur  du  couvert. 

The  degrees  of  crown  density  in  a  forest  are  expressed  by  the  following  terms: 
Closed.     When  the  crowns  form  an  uninterrupted  cover  and  permit  little  or  no 
sunlight  to  reach  the  ground,     (i.,  geschlossen.     F.,  plein. 

Dense.     When  three-fourths  or  more  of  the  ground  is  shaded.     G.^-dicht.     F., 
dense. 

Thin.     When  three-fourths  to  one-half  of  the  ground  is  shaded  by  the  crowns. 
G.,  licht.     F.,  clair. 

Open.     When  less  than  one- half   the  ground  is  shaded  by  the  crowms.     G., 
liickig.     F.,  entrecoupe. 

Park  forest  is  forest  in  which  shade  occurs  only  in  isolated  patches,  under  single 
trees  or  small  groups. 
Crown  Hre.    See  Forest  lire. 
Crown  forest.     See  National  forest. 
Cruiser's  bark  blazer.    See  Scratcher. 


TEEMS    IN    FORESTRY.  9 

Cull,  r.     To  take  out  of  a  forest  by  selection  a  portion  of  the  trees. 

Culled  forest.     Forest  from  which  cuttings  by  selection  have  removed  a  portion  of 
the  trees. 

Current  annual  increment.     The  volume  of  wood  produt^eil  in  a  given  year  by  the 
growth  of  a  tree  or  stand. 

Cut  over,  to.     To  cut  most  or  all  of  the  merchantable  timber  in  a  forest. 

Cut-over  forest.     Forest  in  which  most  or  all  of  the  merchantable  timVjer  has  been 
cut. 

Cutting-  area.     The  area  over  which  cuttings  are  to  be  or  have  been  made. 
G.,  Schlag.     F.,  coupe. 

Cutting'  height.     The  height  above  the  ground  at  which  a  tree  is  to  be  cut.     See 
Stump  height. 

Cutting-  limit.     See  Diameter  limit. 

Cutting-  series.  A  block  or  a  part  of  a  block  containing  even-aged  stands  whose 
ages  differ  uniformly  within  given  limits  and  which  are  to  be  cut  in  turn,  the  cut- 
tings usually  following  a  given  direction.  A  perfect  cutting  series  seldom  exists, 
except  under  the  clean-cutting  method  followed  by  artificial  reproduction,  or 
under  the  sprout  method. 
G.,  Hiebszug.     F.,  suite  des  coupes. 

Deaden,  v.     To  kill  a  standing  tree  by  girdling  it. 
G.,  ringeln.     F.,  ceinturer. 

Deadening,  n.     An  area  upon  which  the  trees  have  been  deadened. 

Dense,  a.     See  Crown  density. 

Diameter  breasthigh.     The  diameter  of  a  tree  at  4j  feet  above  the  ground. 

Diameter  class.     All  trees  in  a  stand  whose  diameters  are  within  prescribed  limits. 

G.,  Starkeklasse.     F.,  cat^gorie  de  grosseur. 
Diameter  growth.     The  increase  in  diameter  of  a  tree.  . 

G.,  Dickenwachstum.     F.,  croissance  en  diametre. 
Diameter  limit.     The  diameter,  usually  breasthigh,  which  defines  the  size  to  which 
trees  are  to  be  measured  or  used  for  any  given  purpose. 
Syn. :  cutting  limit. 
Diameter  tape.     A  tape  for  ascertaining  the  diameter  of  trees,  so  graduated  that  the 

diameter  corresponding  to  the  girth  of  a  tree  is  read  directly  from  the  tape. 
Dibble,  ».     A  tool  for  making  holes  for  planting  seeds  or  young  trees. 

G.,  Setzpfahl.     F.,  plan^on. 
Dibble  in,  to.     To  plant  seeds  or  young  trees  in  holes  made  with  a  dibble. 
Direct  returns.    See  Forest  products. 

Dominant,  a.     Having  the  crown  free  to  light  on  all  sides  because  of  greater  height. 
See  Crown  class. 

G.,  herrschend.  F.,  dominant. 
Drill  planting.  See  Row  planting. 
Dry  prnning.     /SV  Pruning. 

Dry  topped.     Having  a  dead  or  a  partially  defoliated  crown,  or  discolored  foliage,  as 
the  result  of  injury  or  disease. 

Syn.:  stagheaded.     G.,  gipfeldiirr.     F.,  couronn6. 
DuflF,  n.     See  Litter. 
Even-aged  forest.    See  Regular  forest. 
Expectation  value.    See  Forest  expectation  value. 
29273— No.  61—05 2 


10  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

ExiK'rinioiit  area.  A  forest  area  of  known  size  upon  which  successive  measure- 
ments or  other  detailed  studies  are  made  for  the  determination  of  the  growth  and 
behavior  of  the  stand,  or  upon  which  experiments  are  coiKhicted  to  ascertain  the 
effect  of  methods  of  treatment  upon  the  forest.     See.  Vahiation  area. 

Syn. :  permanent  sample  plot,  permanent  sample  area.  G.,  Probefliiehe,  Ver- 
suchsfliiche.     F.,  surface  d'experience,  place  d'essai. 

Exposure.    See  Aspect. 

Factor  of  shape.     See  Form  factor. 

Factors  of  the  locality.    See  Locality. 

Fail  spot.     A  place  where  natural  or  artiticial  reproduction  has  failed. 

False  riiitf.     The  layer  of  wood,  less  than   a   full   season's  growth,  and   seldom 
extending  around  the  stem,  which  is  formed  whenever  the  diameter  growth  of  a 
tree  is  interrupted  and  begins  again  during  the  same  growing  season. 
G.,  Scheinring.     F.,  fausse  couche  d'accroissement. 

Federal  forest.    See  National  forest. 

Federal  forest  reserAe.    See  National  forest  reserve. 

Final  cutting.    See  Stand  method. 

Final  yield.  All  material  derived  from  rej)roduction  cuttings  or  clean  cuttings. 
It  is  usually  the  chief  crop,  and  marks  the  end  of  the  rotation.  See  Intermediate 
yield. 

G.,  Haul)arkeitsiuitzung,  Abtriebsnutzung.     F.,  produit  principal. 

Financial  rotation.    Sec  Rotation. 
Fire  lane.     See  Fire  line. 

Fire  line.     A  strij)  kept  clear  of  inflammable  material  as  a  protection  against  the 
spread  of  forest  lire. 
Syn.:  fire  lane,  fire  trai'e.     G.,  Feuergestell.     F.,  tranchee  garde-feu. 

Fire  trace.     See  Fire  line. 

First  growth.  1.  Natural  forest  in  which  no  cuttings  have  been  made.  See 
Second  growth. 

Syn.:  old  growth,  virgin  forest.     G.,  Urwald.     F.,  foret  vierge. 

2.  Trees  grown  before  lumbering  or  severe  fire  entered  the  forest;  belonging  to 
the  original  stand. 

Forest,  r.  To  establish  a  forest,  either  by  natural  or  artificial  means. 

Forest,  n.  An  area  whose  principal  crop  is  trees.  A  forest  includes  both  the  forest 
cover  and  the  soil  beneath  it. 

(;.,  Wald,  Forst.     F.,  foret. 

A  forest  judged  by  the  character  of  the  stand  may  be  timberland  or  }rnorHand. 
These  constitute  the  two  great  classes  of  forest,  between  which  it  is  possible  to  draw 
a  practical  but  not  an  absolute  distinction. 

Timberland  may  be  broadly  defined  as  that  class  of  forest  which  contains  in 
commercial  quantities  trees  of  sufficient  size  and  of  the  required  kind  to  furnish 
saw  logs,  pulp  wood,  ties,  poles,  or  wood  for  similar  uses. 

Woodland  may  be  broadly  defined  as  forest  which  contains  trees  fit  for  firewood 
or  fencing,  but  none  or  very  few  trees  which  are  suitable  for  the  uses  enumerated 
above. 

A  timber  trail  is  a  l)ody  of  timberland,  usually  of  large  area. 

A  woodlot  is  a  forest  of  small  area  in  which  the  wood  is  used  mainly  for  fuel, 
fencing,  and  other  farm  purposes. 
Forestation.    See  Forest  extension. 


TERMS    IN    FORESTRY.  11 

Forest  capital.     The  capital  which  a  forest  represents.     It  consists  of  the  forest 
land,  or  fixed  capital,  and  the  stand. 
G.,  Waldkapital.     F.,  capita!  forestier. 

Forest  cover.     All  trees  and  other  plants  in  a  forest. 

Forester,  ».     One  who  practices  forestry  as  a  profession. 

Forest  expectation  value.     The  present  net  value  of  all  future  returns  expected 
from  the  forest  capital.     It  is  determined  by  discounting  to  the  present  time,  at 
compound  interest,  all  returns  and  expenses  anticipated. 
G.,  Erwartungsvvert.     F.,  valeur  d'avenir. 

Forest  extension.     The  establishment  of  forest  upon  areas  where  it  is  at  present 
absent  or  insufhcient. 
Syn. :  forestation. 

Forest  finance.    See  Forest  management. 

Forest  fire.  A  fire  in  timberland  or  woodland.  A  forest  fire  may  be  a  ground  fire, 
a  surface ^fire,  a  stand  fire,  or  a  crown  fire.  A  grouud  fire  is  one  which  burns  in  the 
forest  floor  and  does  not  appear  above  the  ground.  When  a  fire  runs  over  the 
surface  or  burns  the  undergrowth,  it  is  a  surface  fire.  AVhen  a  surface  fire  spreads 
from  the  undergrowth  to  the  stand,  igniting  the  trees,  it  becomes  a  stand  fire. 
Under  certain  conditions  the  crowns  of  the  trees  may  be  ignited,  causing  a 
crovm  fire. 

Forest  floor.  The  deposit  of  vegetable  matter  on  the  ground  in  a  forest.  Litter 
includes  the  upper,  but  slightly  decomposed  portion  of  the  forest  floor;  humus,  the 
portion  in  which  decomposition  is  well  advanced. 

Forest  grown.     Grown  in  the  forest  from  self-sown  seed. 

Forest  humus.    See  Mild  humus. 

Forest  influences.     All  effects  resulting  from  the  presence  of  the  forest,  upon  health, 
climate  (including  wind,  rainfall,  temperature,  etc.),  stream  flow,  and  economic 
conditions. 
Syn. :  indirect  effects. 

Forest  managrenienjt.  The  practical  application  of  the  principles  of  forestry  to  a 
forest  area.     See  Forestry. 

Forest  management  includes  Forest  mensuration,  or  the  determination  of  the 
present  and  future  product  of  the  forest  (G.,  Holzmesskunde.  F.,  cubage) ;  Forest 
organization,  or  the  preparation  of  working  plans  and  planting  plans,  detailed  and 
comprehensive  schemes  for  the  establishment  and  best  use  of  the  forest  (G.,  For- 
st?inrichtung.  F.,  amenagement);  and  Forest,  finance,  or  the  determination  of  the 
money  returns  from  forestry  (G.,  Forstflnanzen.     F.,  finance  forestiere). 

Three  great  systems  of  forest  management  are  distinguished:  The  seed  system, 
the  sprout  system ,  and  the  composite  systetn.  The  seed  system  includes  the  stand 
method,  group  method,  strip  method,  patch  method,  strip  stand  ntetliod,  group  seed 
method,  .scattered  seed  method,  single  tree  method,  reserve  seed  nuihod,  clean  cutting 
method.  The  sprout  system  includes  the  sprout  method.  The  composite  system 
includes  the  reserve  sprout  method. 

Forest  mensuration.    See  Forest  management. 

Forest  nursery.     An  area  upon  which  young  trees  are  grown  for  forest  planting. 
G.,  Baumschule,  Saatkamp.     F.,  pepiniere. 

Forest  organization.    See  Forest  management. 


12  TERMS  USED  IN  FORESTRY  AND  LOGGING. 

Forest  plantation.  Forest  prowtli,  established  by  setting  out  young  trees  or  by 
sowing  seed,  which  has  not  reached  the  small  pole  stage. 

G.,  Pfianzuniz,  Kultur.     F.,  plantation. 

A  fdrest  plantation,  made  by  setting  out  young  trees,  whicli  has  passed  the  small 
pole  stage,  is  called  a  planted  forest.     A  sown  forest  plantation  which  has  passed 
the  small  pole  stage  is  called  a  soivn  forest. 
Forest  policy.     The  principles  which  govern  the  administration  of  the  forest  for  its 
best  permanent  use.     See  Forestry. 

G.,  Forstpolitik.     F.,  politique  forestie re. 
Forest  products.     All  usable  material  yielded  by  the  forest. 

Syn.:  direct  returns. 

The  following  classes  are  distinguished: 

Major  products  include  all  wood  harvested  for  any  purpose. 

G.,  Hauptnutzung.     F.,  produits  principaux. 

Minor  products  include  all  forest  products  except  wood. 

G.,  Nebennutzung.     F.,  menus  produits. 

Forest  protection.  The  safeguarding  of  the  forest  against  any  damage  not  caused 
by  its  own  growth.     See  Forestry. 

G.,  Forstschutz.     F.,  protection  des  for^ts. 

Forestral,  a.     Pertaining  to  forestry. 

Forest  replacement.     The  restoration  of  forest  growth  on  denuded  areas. 
G.,  Wiederaufforstung.     F.,  reboisement. 

Forestry,  n.     The  science  and  art  of  making  the  best  permanent  use  of  the  forest. 

G.,  Forstwirtschaft,  Forstwesen,  Forstwissenschaft.  F.,  science  forestiere,  for- 
esterie. 

The  main  branches  of  forestry  are  Forest  polici^,  Sihicultiire,  Forest  management, 
Forest  protection,  and  Forest  utilization. 

Forest  type.  A  forest  or  a  part  of  a  forest  possessing  distinctive  characteristics  of 
composition  or  habit  of  growth. 

Forest  utilization.     The  most  profitable  use  of  forest  products.     See  Forestry. 
G.,  Forstbenutzung.     F.,  exploitation  des  bois. 

Form  class.     All  trees  in  a  stand  so  similar  in  form  that  the  same  form  factor  is 
applicable  in  determining  their  actual  volume. 
Syn.:  form  factor  class. 

Form  factor.  The  ratio,  expressed  decimally,  between  the  volume  of  a  tree,  or  por- 
tion of  a  tree,  and  of  a  cylinder  of  the  same  height  and  diameter.  The  volume  of 
this  cylinder  multiplied  by  the  form  factor  gives  the  actual  volume  of  the  tree  or 
portion  of  the  tree. 

Syn.:  factor  of  shape.     G.,  Formzahl.     F.,  coefficient  de  forme. 

Three  kinds  of  form  factors  are  distinguished,  according  to  the  portion  of  the 
tree  to  which  they  refer: 

A  Tree  form  factor  is  used  for  determining  the  actual  volume  of  the  whole  tree;  a 
Stem  form  factor  for  determining  the  volume  of  the  stem;  and  a  Timber  form  factor 
for  determining  the  merchantable  contents  of  stem,  crown,  or  both. 

A  form  factor  is  called  absolute  when  the  diameter  of  the  tree  is  measured  at  any 
convenient  height,  the  form  factor  referring  only  to  that  portion  of  the  tree  above 
the  point  at  which  the  diameter  is  measured;  normal,  when  the  diameter  is  meas- 
ured at  a  height  in  constant  ratio  to  the  total  height  of  the  tree;  and  artificial,  when 
the  breasthigh  diameter  is  measured. 

Form  factor  class.    See  Form  class. 


TERMS    IN    FORESTRY.  13 

Future  yield.  The  amount  of  wood  which  given  trees  upon  a  given  area  will  con- 
tain after  a  given  period. 

Future  yield  table.     A  tabular  statement  of  future  yield. 

(ireen  pruning'.    See  Pruning. 

(jround  cover.     All  small  plants  growing  in  a  forest,  except  young  trees;  such  as 
ferns,  mosses,  grasses,  and  weeds.     See  Underbrush. 
G.,  Bodendecke.     F.,  couverture  du  sol. 

(j round  fire.     See  Forest  fire. 

(ironp  method.  A  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  which  groups  of  young 
trees  which  have  sprung  up  in  openings  caused  by  logging,  insect  damage,  wind- 
fall, snowbreak,  or  other  agency,  are  taken  as  starting  points  for  ^he  future  forest; 
or  if  these  are  insufficient,  small  openings  are  purposely  made.  Reproduction  by 
self-sown  seed  from  the  mature  stand  at  the  edges  of  these  groups  is  secured  by 
careful  cuttings,  which  extend  the  groups  until  they  join.  See  Forest  management. 
Syn. :  group  system,  shelterwood  group  system.  G.,  Horst  und  gruppenweise 
Verjiingung,  Gruppenwirtschaft. 

Group  mixture.  A  mixed  forest  in  which  trees  of  the  same  species  occur  in  groups 
not  large  enough  to  be  considered  pure  stands. 

Group  seed  method.  A  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  which  the  forest  is 
reproduced  after  a  single  cutting,  by  leaving  in  groups  seed  trees  of  the  kind  desired. 
fSee  Forest  management. 

Group  system.     See  Group  method. 

Growing'  stock.    See  Stand. 

Habit,  91.     See  Silvics. 

Harden  off,  to.  To  prepare  seedlings  in  the  seedbed  for  transplanting  by  gradually 
exposing  them  to  wind  and  sunlight. 

Heel  in,  to.  To  store  young  trees  for  planting  by  laying  them  against  the  side  of  a 
trench  and  covering  the  roots  with  earth. 

Heigrht  class.     All  trees  in  a  stand  whose  heights  are  within  prescribed  limits. 
G.,  Hohenklasse.     F.,  classe  de  hauteur. 

Height  growth.     The  increase  in  height  of  a  tree. 
G.,  Huhenwuchs.     F.,  croissance  en  hauteur. 

Height  measure.     An  instrument  for  measuring  the  height  of  a  tree. 
Syn. :  hypsometer.     G.,  Hohenmesser.     F.,  dendrometre. 

High  forest.    See  Seed  forest. 

High  forest  compartment  system.    See  Stand  method. 

High  or  seedling  forest  system.    See  Seed  system. 

High  pole.     See  Pole. 

Hill  planting.     See  Mound  planting. 

Humus,  //.     That  portion  of  the  forest  floor  in  which  decomposition  is  well  advanced. 
Syn.:  mold.     G.  and  F.,  Humus. 

Hypsometer,  h.     See  Height  measure. 

Improvement  cutting.     See  Improvement  thinning. 

Improvement  thinning.  Usually  the  first  thinning  ma<le  when  a  forest  is  put 
imder  management,  to  prepare  it  for  the  application  of  a  regular  system.  See 
Thinning. 

Syn.:  improvement  cutting,  preliminary  thinning.     G.,  Verbesserungshieb.     F., 
coupe  d' amelioration. 

Income  rotation.    See  Rotation. 


14  TERMS  USED  IN  FORESTRY  AND  LOGGING. 

Increment,  n.     The  volume  or  value  of  wood  produced  during  a  given  period  by 
the  growth  of  a  tree  or  of  a  stand.     See  Accretion. 
Syn. :  volume  growth.     G.,  Zuwachs.     F.,  accroisement. 
Three  kinds  of  increment  are  distinguished: 
Volume  increment  is  the  increase  in  volume  of  a  tree  or  stand. 
Quality  increment  is  the  increase  in  value  per  unit  of  volume. 

Price  increment  is  the  increment  resulting  from  an  increase  in  the  prii'e  of  forest 
products  independent  of  quality  increment. 
Increment  borer.    See  Accretion  borer. 
Increment  graug'e.    See  Accretion  borer. 

Index,  (I.     The  highest  average  actually  found  upon  a  given  locality.     The  term 
index  apj)lied  to  stand,  diameter  growth,  height  growth,  increment,  and  present 
and  future  yield  is  the  equivalent  of  normal,  when  normal  is  used  to  describe  the 
assumed  standard  based  upon  actual  measurement. 
Syn.:  normal.     G.  and  F.,  normal. 
Index  forest.     That  forest  which  in  density,  volume,  and  increment  reaches  the 
highest  average  which  has  been  found  upon  a  given  locality.     Measurements  of 
such  a  forest  provide  a  standard  for  comparison  with  other  forests  of  the  same  age 
and  composition,  grown  under  similar  conditions. 
Syn.:  normal  forest. 
Indirect  effects.    See  Forest  influences. 
Intermediate,  a.     Having  the  crown  shaded  on  the  sides,  but  free  to  light  at  the 

toj).     See  Crown  class. 
Intermediate  yield.     All  material  from  thinnings  or  from  any  cutting  not  intended 
to  invite  or  assist  reproduction.     See  Final  yield. 
G.,  Zwischennutzung.     F.,  produits  interm^diaires. 
Intermittent  Working'.    See  Working. 
Intolerant,  a.     Incapable  of  enduring  heavy  shade. 

Syn.:  light  demanding.     G.,  lichtbediirftig.     F.,  ii  temperament  robuste. 
Irreg'ular  forest.     Forest  in  which  the  trees  differ  considerably  in  age. 

Syn.:  uneven-aged  forest.     G.,  ungleichalterigerBestand.     F.,  peuplementm614. 
Larg-e  pole.    See  Pole. 
Large-pole  forest.     A  forest  of  large  poles. 
Large  sapling.    See  Sapling. 
Large-sapling  forest.     A  forest  of  large  saplings. 
Leaf  canopy.    /S^t;  Crown  cover. 
Leaf  cover.     See  Litter. 
Leaf  litter.     See  Litter. 

Lift,  r.     To  pry  up  seedlings  in  the  seedbed,  so  that  they  may  be  pulled  up  l)y  liand 
for  transjilanting. 

Light  demanding.     See  Intolerant. 

Light  screen.     See  Shade  frame. 

Line  out,  to.     To  transplant  seedlings  from  the  seedbed  to  rows  in  the  forest  nursery. 
G.,  verschulen.     F.,  repiquer. 

Litter,  n.     That  portion  o{  the  forest  floor  which  is  not  in  an  advanced  state  of 
decomposition. 

Syn.:  leaf  litter,  leaf  cover,  duff.     G.,  Streu.     F.,  litiere. 


TERMS    IN    FORESTRY.  15 

Locality,  ?).  An  area,  onnsidored  with  reference  to  forest-producing  power;  the 
fnctdrx  of  the  localitii  are  the  altitude,  soil,  slope,  aspect,  and  other  local  conditions 
influencing  forest  growth. 

Syn.:  site.     G.,  Standort.     F.,  station. 

Locality  class.     All  localities  with  similar  forest-producing  power. 

Syu.:  quality  of  locality.  G.,  Standortsgiite,  Standortsbonitiit,  Bonitiit.  F., 
(jualite  de  la  station. 

Log'  rule.  1.  A  tabular  statement  of  the  amount  of  lumber  which  can  be  sawed 
from  logs  of  given  lengths  and  diameters. 

2.  A  graduated  stick  for  measuring  the  diameters  of  logs.  The  immljer  of  board 
feet  in  logs  of  given  diameters  and  lengths  is  shown  upon  the  stick. 

Syn. :  log  scale,  scale  rule. 

Log:  scale.     See  Log  rule. 

Lower  story.     See  Two-storied  forest. 

Low  i)ole.    See  Pole. 

Major  products.     See  Forest  products. 

Major  ride.     See  Compartment  line. 

Maiiy-ag"ed  forest.  A  forest  through  all  parts  of  which  many  different  age  classes  of 
trees  tend  to  distribute  themselves.  When  all  age  classes  are  thus  distributed,  the 
forest  is  nil-aged.  These  two  terms  replace  selection  forest,  many-aged  being  substi- 
tuted for  imperfect  selection,  and  all-aged  for  perfect  or  ideal  selection. 

Marking'  hatchet.  A  hatchet  for  uiai  king  trees.  A  raised  die  is  cut  on  the  head 
for  stamping  the  face  of  the  blaze. 

Mature  forest.  Forest  so  old  that  growth  in  height  is  practically  at  an  end  and 
diameter  growth  is  decreasing. 

Mean  annual  increment.  The  total  increment  of  a  tree  or  stand  divided  ])y  its 
age  in  years. 

Merchantable  length.     The  total  length  of  that  portion  of  the  stem  which  can  be 
used  under  given  conditions. 
Syn.:  possible  merchantable  length. 

Merchantable  volume.  The  total  volume  of  that  portion  of  the  tree  which  can  be 
used  under  given  conditions. 

Syn. :  possible  merchantalile  volume. 

Method  of  successive  thinning's.    See  Stand  method. 

Mild  humus.     Humus  in  a  condition  favorable  to  forest  growth. 

Syn.:  forest  humus.     Ant. :  sour  humus.    G.,  milder  Humus.    F.,  terreau  forestier. 

Minor  i>rodncts.     See  Forest  products. 
Minor  ride.     See  Compartment  line. 

Mixed  forest.     Forest  composed  of  trees  of  two  or  more  species. 
G.,  gemi.schter  Bestand.     F.,  peuj^lement  melange. 

Mixed  seedling'  and  sprout  forest.    See  Composite  forest. 

Mold,  11.     See  Humus. 

Mother  tree,  n.     See  Seed  tree. 

Mound  planting.     A  method  of  planting  on  wet  ground,  in  which  the  seeds  or 

young  trees  are  planted  on  mounds,  ridges,  or  hills. 
Syn.:    hill  planting,  ridge  planting.     G.,   Hiigelpflanzung.     F.,   plantation   en 

buttes. 


16  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

National  forest.    A  forest  w  hich  is  the  pruperty  oi  the  United  States. 
Syn. :  federal  forest. 

Forest  belonging  to  the  National  Government  is  in  €».,  Staatswald;  F.,  foret 
domaniale,  and  in  the  British  dependencies,  Crown  forest. 

National  forest  reserre.  A  tract  of  land  set  apart  from  the  public  domain  l)y  proc- 
lamation of  the  President  under  section  24  of  the  act  of  March  3,  1801,  or  created 
by  .^jpccial  act  of  Congress,  and  administered  under  laws  of  the  United  States  passed 
for  that  purpose,  in  order  "to  imjirove  and  i)rotect  the  forest  within  the  reserva- 
tion, or  for  the  purpose  of  securing  favoral)le  conditions  of  waterflows  and  to  furnish 
a  continuous  supply  of  timber  for  the  use  and  necessities  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States." 

Syn.:  Federal  forest  reserve. 

National  park.  A  tract  of  Government  land  withdrawn  by  special  act  of  Congress 
from  settlement,  occupancy,  or  sale,  under  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  for  the 
benefit  and  enjoyment  of  the  people.  ; 

Natural  pruning.    See  Pruning.  ,^ 

Natural  reprodnction.    .See  Reproduction.  •,,, 

Normal,  a.     See  Index. 

Normal  forest.     See  Index  forest.  .^ 

Normal  form  factor.    See  Form  factor.  ^^, 

Nurse,  n.     A  tree  which  fosters  the  growth  of  another  in  youth. 
G.,  Schutzholz.     F.,  essence  d'abri. 

Nursery  grown.     Grown  in  a  forest  nursery. 

01<l-field  growth.    See  Volunteer  growth. 

Old  growtli.     See  First  growth. 

Open,  a.     See  Crown  density. 

Overmature  forest.  Forest  in  which,  as  the  result  of  age,  growtli  has  almost 
entirely  ceased,  and  decay  and  deterioration  have  l)egun. 

Overtopped,  (f.  Having  the  crown  shaded  from  above,  although  a  side  or  sides 
may  be  free  to  light.     See  Crown  class. 

Overwood,  n.     See  Two-storied  forest. 

Park  forest.     See  Crown  density. 

Partial  section  analysis.    See  Tree  analysis. 

Partial  stump  analysis.    See  Tree  analysis. 

Patch  nietliod.     The  clean  cutting  of  small  patches  to  invite  reproduction  by  self- 
sown  seed  from  the  surrounding  forest.     See  Forest  management. 
G.,  Kesselhieb,  Locherhieb.     F.,  coupes  par  troupes. 

Patcli  sowing.     Sowing  forest  seed  in  spots.     See  Seed  spot. 
G..  Pliitzesaat,  Plattensaat.      F.,  semis  par  places. 

Periodic  annual  increment.  The  total  increment  for  the  i>eriod,  divided  by  the 
number  of  years  in  the  period.     See  Periodic  increment. 

Periodic  increment.  The  volume  of  wood  produced  by  the  growth  of  a  tree  or 
stand  in  a  specified  number  of  years. 

Periodic  working.     See  Working. 

Permanent  sample  area.    See  Experiment  area. 

Permanent  sample  plot.    See  Experiment  area. 

Physical  rotation.     See  Rotation. 

Pit  planting.     See  Trench  planting. 


TERMS   IN    FORESTRY.  17 

Planted  forest.    See  Forest  plantation. 

Planting  plan.     A  detailed  scheme  for  forest  planting  on  a  given  area. 

Planting-  site.     An  area  which  is  to  be  artificially  stocked  with  forest  fjrowth. 

Plot  survey.    See  Valuation  survey. 

Pole,  n.     A  tree  from  4  to  12  inches  in  diameter  breasthigh.     See  Tree  class. 

G.,  Stange.     F.,  perche. 

A  small  pole  is  a  tree  from  4  to  8  inches  in  diameter  breasthigh. 

Syn. :  low  pole. 

A  large  pole  is  a  tree  from  8  to  12  inches  in  diameter  breasthigh. 

Syn.:  high  pole. 

Pollard,  r.  To  invite  the  production  of  shoots  at  the  top  of  a  tree  by  cutting  back 
the  crown. 

G.,  kopfen.     F.,  eteter,  ecimer. 

Pollard,  n.  A  tree  whose  crown  has  been  cut  back  to  invite  the  production  of 
shoots. 

G.,  Kopfholz.     F.,  tetard. 

Possible  merchantable  length.     See  Merchantable  length. 

Possible  merchantable  volume.     See  Merchantable  volume. 

Preliminary  examination.     A  reconnoissance  of  a  forest  to  determine  whether  the 

preparation  of  a  working  plan  for  its  management  is  advisable,  or  a  reconnoissance 

to  determine  the  advisability  of  forest  planting. 
Preliminary  thinning.    See  Improvement  thinning. 
Preparatory  cuttings.    See  Stand  method. 
Preparatory  stage.    See  Stand  method. 
Present  yield.     The  amount  of  wood  at  present  contained  in  given  trees  upon  a 

given  area. 

G.,  Vorrath.     F.,  materiel  debout,  materiel  sur  pied. 

Present  yield  table.  A  tabular  statement  of  the  amount  of  wood  at  present  con- 
tained in  given  trees  upon  a  given  area. 

Price  increment.     See  Increment. 

Private  forest.  A  forest  which  is  the  property  of  an  individual,  corporation,  com- 
pany, or  private  institution.     G.,  Privatwald.     F.,  foret  particuliere. 

Protection  forest.     A  forest  whose  chief  value  is  to  regulate  stream  flow,  prevent 
erosion,  bold  shifting  sand,  or  exert  any  other  indirect  beneficial  effect. 
G.,  Schutzwald,  Bannwald.     F.,  foret  de  protection. 

Pruning.,  n.  The  removal  of  l)ranches  from  standing  trees  by  natural  or  artificial 
means. 

G.,  Aufiistung.     F.,  elagage. 

The  clearing  of  the  stem  through  the  death  and  fall  of  l)ranches  for  want  of  light 
is  known  as  natural  priming.  (G.,  Astreinigung.  F.,  elagage  naturel. )  When 
living  branches  are  removed  by  cutting  them  close  to  the  stem  the  operation  is 
known  as  green  pruning  (G.,  Griiniistung.  F.,  elagage  de  branches  vivantes);  when 
it  is  confined  to  dead  branches,  as  dry  pruning  (G.,  Trockeniistung.  F.,  Elagage 
de  branches  mortes). 

Puddle,  '■.     To  dip  the  roots  of  young  trees  in  thin  nuid. 

Puddle,  n.  A  mixture  of  soil  or  mold  and  water,  forming  tliiii  mud,  in  which  the 
roots  of  young  trees  are  dipped  to  retard  drying  out  during  transplanting. 

29273— No.  61—05 3 


18  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AXD    LOGGING. 

Pure  forest.     Forest  composed  of  trees  of  one  species.     In  practice,   a  forest  in 
which  80  per  cent  of  the  trees  are  of  one  species. 
G.,  reiner  Bestanti.     F.,  peuplement  pur. 
IJiiality  increment.     See  Increment. 
finality  of  locality.    See  LocaHty  class. 

Quincunx  planting.     A  method  of  planting  in  which  young  trees  are  set  iii  the 
center  and  at  each  corner  of  succes.«ive  squares. 

G.,  Fiinfverband,  Kreuzpflanzung.     F.,  plantation  en  (luinconce. 
Reforest,  v.     See  Restock. 
Reireneration,  n.     See  Reproduction. 
Regeneration  cutting.     See  Reproduction  cutting. 
Regular  forest.     Forest  in  which  the  trees  are  approximately  of  the  .-a.-.c  age. 

Syn.:  even-aged  forest.     G.,  gleichalteriger  Bestand.     F.,  peuplement  uniform. 
Removal  cuttings.     See  Stand  method. 
Removal  stage.     See  Stand  method. 

Reproduction,  n.     1.  The  process  by  which  a  forest  is  renewed. 
Syn.:  regeneratiijn.     G.,  Verjiingung.     F.,  regeneration. 

Natural  rcprodu(iio)i  is  the  renewal  of  a  forest  by  self-sown  seeds  or  by  sprouts. 
G.,  natiirliche  Verjiingung.     F.,  regeneration  naturelle. 
Artificial  reproduction  is  the  renewal  of  a  forest  by  sowing  or  plant iiv. 
G.,  kunstliche  Verjiingung.     F.,  regeneration  artificielle. 
2.  Seedlings  or  saplings  from  sprouts  or  from  self-sown  seed. 
Reproduction  cutting.     Any  cutting  intended  to  invite  or  assist  reproduction. 

Syn.:  regeneration  cutting.     G.,  Verjiingungshieb.     F.,  coupe  de  regeneration. 

Reproduction  period.    The  space  of  time  required  for  the  renewal  of  a  stand. 

Reserve  seed  method.    That  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  which,  in  a  stand 

which  is  being  reproduced  by  self-sown  seed,  a  number  of  trees  are  left  uncut  for  a 

period,  usually  a  second  rotation,  after  the  stand  itself  is  reproduced.     See  Forest 

management. 

Syn.:  system  of  high  forest  with  standards.     G.,  Ueberhaltbetrieb.     F.,  traite- 
ment  en  futaie  avec  reserve  sur  coupe  definitive. 
Reserve  sprout  forest.     Two-storied  forest,  in  which  sprouts  form  the  lower  and 
seedlings,  or  selected,  healthy  sprouts,  the  upper  story. 

Syn.:  coppice  with  standards,  standard  coppice,  stored  coppice.     G.,  ^littel- 
wald.     F.,  taillis  compose,  taillis  sous  futaie. 
Reserve  sprout  method.     That  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  which  an 
overwood  composed  of  seedling  trees,  or  selected  sprouts,  is  maintained  above  a 
stand  of  sprouts.     See  Forest  management. 

Syn.:  istandard  coppice  system.     G.,  Mittelwaldbetrieb.     F.,  regime  du  taillis 
compost. 
Restock,  V.     To  renew  a  forest,  either  by  natural  or  artificial  means. 

Syn.:  reforest.     G.,  aufforsten.     F.,  reboiser. 
Ride,  n.     See  Compartment  line. 
Ridge  planting.    See  Mound  planting. 

Rock,  n.     In  forest  description  rock  refers  to  those'characteristics  of  the  underlying 
formation  which  affect  the  forest;  as,  for  example,  its  outcrop,  composition,  and 
the  rajiidity  of  its  disintegration. 
Rock  in,  to.     To  plant  young  trees  in  openings  in  the  ground  made  by  prying  or 
rocking  a  spade  back  and  forth. 


TERMS    IN    FORESTRY,  19 

Root  collar.     That  plai'e  at  the  base  of  a  tree  where  the  swelling  which   is  the 
direct  result  of  the  rainitications  of  the  roots  begins. 
G.,  Wurzelhals.     F.,  collet. 
Root  sucker.     See  Sprout. 

Rotation,  n.     The  period  represented  by  the  age  of  a  forest,  or  a  part  of  a  forest,  at 
the  time  when  it  is  cut,  or  intended  to  be  cut. 
G.,  IJmtrieb,  Umtriebszeit.     F.,  revolution. 
The  folU)wing  classes  of  rotation  are  distinguished: 

Fiuaitrial  rotation,  under  which  a  forest  yields  the  highest  net  interest  on  itc 
capital  value,  calculating  at  compound  interest. 

Income  rotation,  under  which  a  forest  yields  the  highest  net  return,  calculating 
without  interest. 

S}'n. :  rotation  of  the  liighest  income. 

Silrical  rotation,  the  rotation  most  favorable  to  the  natural  rei)roductinn  of  the 
forest  under  a  given  method. 

Syn.:  physical  rotation,  silvicultural  rotation. 

Technical  rotation,  under  which  a  forest  yields  the  material  most  suitable  for  a 
certain  purpose. 

Volume  rotation,  under  which  a  forest  yields  the  greatest  quantity  of  material. 
Syn. :  rotation  of  the  greatest  volume. 
Rotation  of  the  greatest  volume.    See  Rotation. 
Rotation  of  the  hig^hest  income.     See  Rotation. 

Row  planting.  A  method  of  planting  in  which  the  young  trees  are  placed  in  rows, 
the  distance  between  the  rows  being  greater  than  the  distance  between  the  young 
trees  in  the  rows.  In  planting  seeds  or  seedlings  in  the  forest  nursery  this  method 
is  known  as  drill  planting. 

G.,  Reihenpflanzung.     F.,  plantation  en  lignes. 
Sample  area.     See  Valuation  area;  Experiment  area. 
Sample  plot.     See  Valuation  area;  Experiment  area. 

Sample  tree.  A  tree  which  in  diameter,  height,  and  volume  is  representative  of  a 
tree  class. 

G.,  Probestamm.     F.,  tige  d'experience. 

A  cla^s  sample  tree  is  a  tree  which  in  diameter,  height,  and  volume  represents 
the  average  of  sevei'al  tree  classes. 
Syn. :  arithmetical  mean  sample  tree. 

Sapling,  n.  A  tree  3  feet  or  over  in  height,  and  less  than  4  inches  in  diameter 
breasthigh.     See  Tree  class. 

A  small  sapling  is  a  sapling  from  3  to  10  feet  in  height. 
A  large  sapling  is  a  sapling  10  feet  or  over  in  height. 

Scald,  n.     See  Sun  scald. 

Scale  rule.    See  Log  rule. 

Scattered  seed  method.  That  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  which  repro- 
duction is  provided  for  by  leaving,  after  a  single  cutting,  scattered  seed  trees  of  the 
kind  desired.     See  Forest  management. 

Scratcher,  n.  An  instrument  used  for  marking  trees.  It  usually  consists  of  a  hook- 
like gouge  fastened  to  a  flat,  elliptical  iron  hoop,  with  wooden  handle  plates  on 
the  opposite  side  from  the  gouge. 

Syn.:  bark  blazer,  bark  gouge,  crui-ser's  bark  l)lazer,  tree  scribe.     G.,  Risser. 
F.,  griff e. 

Screen,  n.     See  Shade  frame. 


20  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY   AND    LOGGING. 

Second  growth.     Forest  growth  which  comes  up  naturally  after  cutting,  fire,  or 

other  disturbing  cause.     See  First  growth. 
Section  analysis.    See  Tree  analysis. 

Seedbed,  n.  A  specially  prepared  area,  usually  in  the  forest  nursery,  for  the  rais- 
ing of  seedlings. 

G.,  Saatbeet.     F.,  couche  de  semis. 
Seed  cnttinars.    <S'ee  Stand  method. 
Seed  forest.     A  forest  composed  wholly  or  mainly  of  trees  grown  from  seed. 

Syn.:  high  forest.     G.,  Hochwald,  Samenwald.     F.,  futaic,  haute  futaie. 
Seeding'  stage.    See  Stand  method. 
Seedling,  n.     1.  A  tree  grown  from  seed. 

G.,  Kernwuchs.     F.,  brin  de  semence. 

2.  A  tree  grown  from  seed  which  has  not  reached  a  height  of  3  feet.     See  Tree 
class. 

G.,  Siimlinj;,  Keiuiling.     F.,  jeune  brin. 

Seed  spot.  A  small  area,  usually  in  a  burn  or  in  an  opening  in  the  forest,  which  is 
sown  with  tree  seed. 

Seed  system.     One  of   the  three  great  systems  of  forest  management.      I'mler  it 
reproduction  is  obtained  from  seed.    See  Forest  management. 
Syn.:  high  or  seedling  forest  system.     G.,  Hochwaldbetrieb,  Samenholzbetrieb. 
F.,  r(?gime  de  la  futaie. 

Seed  tree,  n.  Any  tree  which  bears  seed;  specifically,  a  tree  which  provides  the 
seed  for  natural  reproduction. 

Syn.:  mother  tree.     G.,  Mutterbaum,  Samenbaum.     F.,  porte-graine,  .semencier. 

Seed  year.     A  year  in  which  a  given  species  of  tree  bears  seed;  specifically,  a  year 
in  which  a  given  species  bears  seed  al)un(lantly. 
G.,  Samenjahr.     F. ,  annee  de  semence. 

Selection  Coresl.     Sir  Many-aged  forest. 

Selection  method  or  system.     See  Single  tree  method. 

Self-so>vn  seed.  Strictlj',  disseminated  without  the  intervention  of  iiunian  or  ani- 
mal agency;  in  common  practice,  seed  sown  by  any  agency  other  tlian  man. 

Semimatnre  forest.  Forest  in  which  rapid  growth  in  height  has  culminated,  but 
diameter  growth  has  not  begun  to  fall  off. 

Severance  cutting.  The  cutting  of  all  trees  upon  a  narrow  strip  before  natural 
pruning  has  far  advanced,  in  order  that  the  trees  bordering  this  strip  may,  as  the 
result  of  partial  exposure,  become  wind-firm  through  the  development  of  strong 
roots.  Thus  severance  cuttings  are  made  to  strengthen  the  trees  on  the  edge  of  a 
stand  which  will  later  be  entirely  exposed  through  the  removal  of  the  stand  which 
now  pnjtects  it. 

(J.,  Loshieb.     F.,  essartement  dc  protection. 

Shade-bearing,  a.     See  Tolerant. 

Sliiide-enduring,  a.     Set  Tolerant. 

Shade  frame.  A  frame  for  the  partial  shading  of  a  .seedbed.  It  consists  of  a  cover 
of  laths,  l)rush,  or  cloth,  supported  on  ])osts  and  arranged  so  that  light  can  be 
admitted  as  de.sired. 

Syn.:  light  screen,  screen. 

vShaft,  tt.     See  Stem. 


TERMS    IN    FORESTRY.  21 

Sholtei'belt,  ».  Natural  or  artificial  forest  maintained  as  a  protection  from  wind  or 
snow. 

Syn. :  shelterwood,  wind  mantle.     G.,  Waldmantel,  Schut/.niantel.     F.,  rideau. 

A  narrow  shelterbelt  in  which  true  forest  conditions  do  not  exist,  is  a  windbreak 
when  maintained  as  a  protection  against  wind,  and  a  xnorcbreak  when  maintained 
as  a  jirotection  against  snow. 
Shelterwood,  /(.     See  Shelterbelt. 

Shelterwood  compartment  system.    See  Stand  method. 
Shi'ltorwood  arroup  system.     See  Group  method. 
Shelterwood  selection  system.     See  Single  ti'ee  method. 
Shoot,  n.     See  Sprout. 
Silvical,  «.     Pertaining  to  silvics. 
Silvioal  rotation.     See  Rotation. 
Silvies,  11.     1.  The  science  which  treats  of  the  life  of  trees  in  the  fore.st. 

2.  The  habit  or  behavior  of  a  tree  in  the  forest. 

Syn.:  habit,  silvicultural  characteristics. 

Silvicultural  characteristics.     See  Silvics. 

Silvicultural  rotation.     See  Rotation. 

Silviculture,  u.     The  art  of  producing  and  tending  a  forest;  the  application  of  the 
knowledge  of  silvics  in  the  treatment  of  a  forest.     See  Forestry. 
G.,Waldbau,  Holzzucht.     F.,  sylviculture. 

Sin§:le  tree  method.  That  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  which  reproduc- 
tion from  self-sown  seed  under  the  shelter  of  the  old  stand  is  invited  by  the 
cutting  of  single  trees.  This  cutting  may  be  made  throughout  the  forest,  as  in 
some  woodlots,  or  in  definite  portions  of  the  forest  in  turn.  See  Forest  management. 
Syn.:  selection  method,  selection  system,  shelterwood  selection  system.  G., 
Pltinterbetrieb,  Pliinterwirtschaft,  Femelbetrieb.  F.,  jardinage,  regime  de  la 
futaie  jardinee. 

Single  tree  mixture.     A  mixture  in  which  trees  of  different  species  occur  singly. 

Site,  n.     See  Locality. 

Slope,  n.  The  gradient  of  the  land  surface.  In  forest  description  the  following 
terms  are  used  to  define  the  slope,  each  of  which  has  its  equivalent  in  percentages 
of  the  horizontal  distance  and  in  degrees: 

Level  =       0-5%=     .0-  3.0° 

Gentle         =       .5-15^=3.0-8.5° 

Moderate    =     lb-  30%=   8.5-16.5° 

Steep  =     30-509^  =  16.5-26.5° 

Very  steep  =     50-100 %  =  26.5-45.0° 

Precipitous=over  100%=over  45.0° 

Small  pole.     See  Pole. 

Small-pole  forest.     A  forest  of  small  poles. 

Small  sapling.    See  Sapling. 

Small-sapling:  forest.    A  forest  of  small  saplings. 

Snow  break,  ?i.     1.  The  breaking  of  trees  by  snow. 
G.,  Schneebruch.     F.,  bris  de  neige. 

2.  An  area  on  which  trees  have  been  l)roken  by  snow. 

3.  )See  Shelterbelt. 


22  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

Soil,  n.  In  forest  description  the  origin,  composition,  depth,  and  moisture  of  the 
forest  soil  are  considered  under  soil.  Its  depth  is  defined  by  the  following;  terms, 
each  of  which  has  its  equivalent  in  inches: 

Very  shallow=less  than  6  inches. 
Shallow  =6  to  12  inches. 

Moderate        =12  to  24  inches. 
Deep  =24  to  36  inches. 

Very  deep      =over  36  inches. 
The  moisture  of  the  soil  is  defined  by  the  following  terms: 
Wet:  when  water  drips  from  a  piece  held  in  the  hand  without  pressing. 
MoiM:  when  water  drips  from  a  piece  pressed  in  the  hand. 

Freifli:  when  iio  water  drips  from  a  piece  pressed  in   the  hand,   though  it  is 
unmistakably  present. 

Dry:  when  there  is  little  or  no  trace  of  water. 

Very  dry:  when  the  soil  is  parched.     Such  soils  are  usually  caked  and  very  hard, 
sand  being  an  exception. 
Sour  hiiiniis.     Humus  harmful  to  forest  growth  owing  to  the  presence  of  liumii-  or 
similar  acids  produced  by  decomposition  under  excess  of  moisture  and  lack  of  air. 
Syn.:  acid  humus.     Ant.:  mild  humus.     G.,  sauerer  Humus.     F.,  humus  tour- 
beux. 
Sown  forest.     See   Forest  plantation. 
Sprout,  n.     A  tree  which  has  grown  from  a  stump  or  root. 

Syn.:  coppice  shoot,  root  sucker,  stool  shoot,  stump  shoot.     G.,  Stockausschlag. 
F.,  rejet  de  souche. 

A  shoot  is  a  sprout  which  has  not  reached  a  height  of  3  feet.     See  Tree  class. 
Sprout  forest.        A  forest  consisting  w^holly  or  mainly  of  sprouts. 

Syn.:  coppice,  coppice  forest.     G.,  Niederwald.     F.,  taillis. 
Sprout  method.     That  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  which  reproduction  is 
obtained  by  si)routs.     See  Forest  management. 

Syn.:  coppice  method  or  system.     G.,  Niederwaldbetrieb.     F.,  regime  du  taillis 
simple. 
Sprout  system.     One  of  the  three  great  systems  of  forest  management,  in  wliich 
reproduction  is  secured  by  sprouts.     See  Forest  management. 

Syn.:  coppice  system.     G.,  Stockaussclilagbetriel),  Niederwaldl)t'tricb.     F.,  re- 
gime du  taillis  simple. 
Square  plautiug.     A  method  of  planting  in  which  the  distance  between  the  rowe 
is  equal  to  the  distance  between  the  young  trees  in  the  rows. 
(t.,  Quadratpflanzung.     F.,  plantation  en  carre. 
Staglieaded,  a.     See  Dry  topped. 
Stand,  n.     All  growing  trees,  in  a  forest  or  in  part  of  a  forest. 

Syn.:  growing  stock.     G.,  Bestand.     F.,  peuplement. 
Standard,  n.     A  tree  from  1  to  2  feet  in  diameter  breasthigh.     See  Tree  class. 
Standard  coppice.     See  Reserve  sprout  forest. 
Standard  coppice  system.     See  Reserve  sprout  method. 

Standard-forest,  n.     A  forest  of  standards.     G.,  Baiunholz.     F. ,  futaie,  haute  futaie. 
Stand  class.     All  stands  of  similar  density,  height,  and  volume  for  a  given  age  or 
diameter  and  a  given  locality  class.     The  index  stand  may  constitute  the  first  stand 
class. 

G.,  Beetandesgiite.     F.,  (jualite  du  i)euplement. 
Stand  Are.    See  Forest  fire. 


TERMS   IN    FORESTRY.  23 

Stand  method.  That  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  which  repro(hu;tion  is 
securt'd  from  self-sown  seed  by  means  of  successive  cuttings  made  throughout  the 
mature  stand,  thus  leading  to  the  production  of  a  new  stand  approximately  even 
aged.  These  successive  cuttings  encourage  seed  production,  create  conditions 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  seedlings,  and  gradually  remove  the  remaining  trees  of 
the  mature  stand  as  the  young  growth  develops.     See  Forest  management. 

Syn. :  compartment  system,  high  forest  compartment  system,  methoti  of  suc- 
cessive thinnings,  shelterwood  compartment  system.  G.,  schlagweise  Verjiingung. 
F.,  regime  de  la  futaie  reguliere. 

The  series  of  cuttings,  which  vary  in  number  and  duration  according  to  the 
degree  of  difhculty  with  which  reproduction  is  effected,  is  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing four  kinds: 

Preparatory  cuttings  fit  the  stand  for  its  reproductioi)  by  the  removal  of  dead, 
dying,  or  defective  trees,  and  prepare  the  ground  for  the  germination  of  seeds. 

G.,  Vorbereitungsschlag.     F.,  coupe  preparatoire. 

A  stand  in  which  one  or  more  preparatory  cuttings  have  been  made  is  in  the 
preparatory  stage. 

Seed  cuttings  encourage  seed  production  by  the  further  opening  of  the  stand,  and 
admit  light  in  quantity  favorable  for  the  development  of  young  growth. 

G.,  Besamungsschlag.     F.,  coupe  d'ensemencement. 

A  stand  in  which  one  or  more  seed  cuttings  have  been  made  is  in  the  seeding 
stage. 

Removal  cuttings  gradually  remove  the  mature  stanvl  which  would  otherwise 
retard  the  development  of  the  young  trees. 

G.,  Lichtschlag.     F.,  coupe  claire. 

A  stand  in  which  one  or  more  removal  cuttings  have  been  made  is  in  the  removal 
stage. 

The  jinal  cutting  is  the  last  of  the  removal  cuttings,  in  which  all  of  the  old  stand 
still  remaining  is  cut. 

G.,  Abtriebsschlag,  Endhieb.     F.,  coupe  definitive. 

Stand  table.  A  tabular  statement  of  the  number  of  trees  of  each  species  and  diameter 
class  upon  a  given  area. 

State  forest.     A  forest  which  is  the  property  of  a  State. 

Stem,  n.     The  trunk  of  a  tree.     The  stem  may  extend  to  the  top  of  the  tree,  as  in 
some  conifers,  or  it  may  be  lost  in  the  ramification  of  the  crown,  as  in  most  broad- 
leaf  trees.     In  tree  description  the  stem  is  described  as  long  or  short,  straight  or 
crooked,  cylindrical  or  tapering,  smooth  or  knotty. 
Syn.:  bole,  shaft,  trunk.     G.,  Stamm.     F.,  tronc. 

Stem  analysis.     See  Tree  analysis. 

Stem  density.  The  extent  to  which  the  total  number  of  trees  in  a  given  forest 
approaches  the  total  number  which  the  index  forest  of  the  same  age  and  composi^ 
tion  contains.  It  is  ordinarily  expressed  as  a  decimal,  1  being  taken  as  the  numer- 
ical equivalent  of  the  stem  density  of  the  index  forest. 

G.,  Bestockungsdichte,  Bestandesdichte.     F.,  consistance  du  peuplement. 

Stem  form  factor.     See  Form  factor. 

Stool,  n.     See  Stump. 

Stool  shoot.    See  Sprout. 

Stored  coppice.    See  Reserve  sprout  forest. 

Stratify,  v.  To  preserve  tree  seeds  by  spreading  them  in  layers  alternating  with 
layers  of  earth  or  sand. 


24  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND   LOGGING. 

Strip  metliod.     That  method  of  conservative  hiniberin^  in  which  reproduction  is 
secured  on  clean-cut  strips  l)y  self-sown  seed  from  the  adjoining  forest.     See  Forest 
management. 
G.,  Coulissenhieb.     F.,  coupe  par  bandes  alternes. 

Strip  stand  method.  A  modification  of  the  stand  method  in  which  reproduction 
cuttings  are  not  made  simultaneously  throughout  the  stand,  but  the  stand  is 
treated  in  narrow  strips  at  such  intervals  that  reproduction  cuttings  are  generally 
going  on  in  three  strips  at  one  time,  one  strij)  being  in  the  removal  stage,  one  in 
the  seeding  stage,  and  one  in  the  preparatory  stage.     See  Forest  management. 

Strip  survey.    See  Valuation  survey. 

Stub.  n.  That  portion  of  the  stem  left  standing  when  a  tree  is  accidentally  broken 
off. 

Stump,  n.     That  portion  of  the  stem  below  the  cut  made  in  felling  a  tree. 
Syn.:  stool.     G.,  Stock.     F.,  souche. 

Stump  age.  The  age  of  a  tree  as  determined  )jy  the  number  of  annual  rings  upon 
the  face  of  the  stump,  without  allowance  for  the  period  required  for  the  growth  of 
the  tree  to  the  height  of  the  stump. 

Stump  analysis.     See  Tree  analysis. 

Stump  height.  The  distance  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  stump,  or  from  the 
root  collar  when  the  ground  level  has  been  disturbed.  On  a  slope  the  average  dis- 
tance is  taken  as  the  stump  height.     »SV*'  Cutting  height. 

Stump  shoot.     See  Sprout. 
Subcompartment,  n.     See  Compartment. 

Sun  scald.     An  injury  to  tlie  cambium  caused  by  sudden  exposure   of   a   tree  to 
strong  sunlight. 
Syn.:  scald.     G.,  Sonnenbrand.     F.,  brulure,  coups  de  soleil. 

Suppressed,  a.     Having  growth  more  or  less  seriously  retarded  by  shade.    See  Crown 
class. 
G.,  nnterdriickt.     F.,  domine. 

Surface  fire.     See  Forest  fire. 

Sustained  working.     See  Working. 

Sustained  yield.    See  Working. 

System  of  high  forest  Avith  standards.    See  Reserve  seed  method. 

Technical  rotation.    See  Rotation. 

Thicket,  n.     A  stand  of  saplings. 
G.,  Dickicht.     F.,  fourr«J. 

Thin,  a.     See  Crown  density. 

Thinning,  ».     The  removal  of  a  portion  of  the  trees  with  the  object  of  improving 
the  stand  without  inviting  natural  reproduction.     The  following  kinds  of  thin- 
nings are  distinguished:  cleaning,  improrement  thimnng,  accretion  thinning. 
G.,  Durchforstung.     F.,  coupe  d'eclaircie. 

Timber  form  factor.     See  Form  factor. 

Timberland,  n.     See  Forest. 

Timber  tract.     See  Forest. 

Tolerance,  n.     The  capacity  of  a  tree  to  endure  shade. 


TERMS    IN    FORESTRY.  25 

Tolorant,  a.     Capable  of  enduring  more  or  lese  heavy  shade. 

Syn.:  ssliade-bearing,  shade-enduring.  G.,  Schattenertragend.  F.,  a  tempera- 
ment dehcat. 

Total  increment.  The  total  volume  of  wood  produced  l)y  the  growth  of  a  tree  or 
stand  up  to  the  time  it  is  cut. 

Town  forest.     A  forest  whieh  is  the  property  of  a  city,  town,  or  village. 

Syn.:  communal  forest.     (J.,  Gemeindewald.     F.,  foret  communale. 
Transplant,  r.     1.  To  take  up  a  young  tree  and  set  it  out  again  in  another  place. 

2.  To  transfer  seedlings  from  the  seedbed  to  another  j)lace  in  the  forest  nursery, 
or  from  the  latter  to  the  planting  site. 

G.,  verpflanzen,  verschulen.     F. ,  transplanter. 

Transplant,  n.     A  seedling  which  has  been  transjilanted  once  or  several  times. 
G.,  Schulpfianze.     F.,  plant  repique. 

Trap  tree.  A  tree  deadened  or  felled  at  a  time  when  destructive  bark  beetles  will 
be  attracted  to  it  and  enter  the  bark.  After  they  have  entered,  the  bark  is  peeled 
and  exposed  to  the  sun,  burned,  or  buried,  as  the  case  may  require,  to  destroy  the 
insect. 

G.,  Fangbaum.     F.,  arbre-piege. 

Tree  analysis.  A  series  of  measurements  and  observations  upon  a  felled  tree  to 
determine  its  growth  and  life  history. 

Syn. :  stem  analysis.     G.,  Stammanalyse.     F.,  analyse  de  tige. 

Tree  analyses  vary  with  their  purpose,  and  may  include  all  or  a  part  of  the  fol- 
lowing, or  may  require  additions  to  meet  special  needs.  The  usual  measure- 
ments comprise  the  length  of  each  section,  the  diameter  inside  and  outside  the 
bark,  the  total  age,  the  age  and  width  of  the  sapwood,  the  diameter  growth  at 
given  periods  on  the  upper  end  of  each  section,  the  diameter  breasthigh,  the 
total  height,  and  the  clear,  used,  and  merchantal)le  lengths.  The  observations 
determine  the  class,  form,  and  condition  of  the  tree. 

Although  a  tree  analysis  may  include  many  combinations  of  the  above  measure- 
ments, two  important  classes  are  distinguished: 

A  stump  analysis  includes  measurements  of  the  diameter  growth  at  given  periods 
upon  the  stump  only,  no  matter  what  other  measurements  it  may  comprise. 

A  section  analysis  includes  measurements  of  the  diameter  growth  at  given  periods 
upon  more  than  one  section. 

When,  in  a  stump  or  section  analysis,  the  measurement  of  the  diameter  growth 
at  given  periods  covers  only  a  portion  of  the  total  diameter  growth,  the  analysis 
is  a.  partial  stump  analysis  or  a.  partial  section  analysis. 

Tree  class.  All  trees  of  approximatelj'  the  same  size.  The  following  tree  classes  are 
distinguished:  seedling,  shoot,  small  sapling,  large  sapling,  small  pole,  large  pole,  stand- 
ard, veteran. 

Tree  form  factor.    See  Form  factor. 

Tree  scribe.    See  Scratcher. 

Trench  planting.     A  method  of  planting  on  dry  groimd,  in  which  the  seeds  of 
young  trees  are  set  in  pits  or  trenches. 
Syn. :  pit  planting. 

Triangular  planting'.     A  method  of  planting  in  which  the  unit  of  arrangement  is 
an  equilateral  triangle,  at  each  apex  oi  which  young  trees  are  placed. 
G.,  Dreieckverband.     F.,  plantation  en  triangle. 

Trunk,  n.     See  Stem. 

29273— No.  61—05 1 


20  TERMS  USED  IN  FORESTRY  AND  LOGGTNG. 

T«  (►-storiod  forest.     Cdinprising  on  the  naiiie  area  two  clasi^es,  which  vary  consider^ 

u1j1\-  ill  height,  composed  of  trees  of  (Hfferent  species.     The  term  is  not  applicable  to 

forest  under  reproduction,  in  which  the  appearance  of  two  stories  is  the  temporary 

result  of  an  incomplete  process,  but  to  those  forests  of  which  the  two  stories  of 

growth  are  a  natural  and  permanent  feature. 
G.,  zweihiebig.     F.,  a  double  etage. 
In  a  two-storied  forest  the  taller  trees  form  the  orerwuod,  or  upper  Mory.     (i.,  Ober- 

holz,  Oberstand.     F.,  6tage  superieur  du  peujjlement.     The  shorter  trees  form  the 

nnderv'ood,  or  loirei'  stori/.     G.,  Unterholz,  Unterstand.     F.,  sousetage. 
TJinlerbrush,  /).     All   large,   woody  plants,   such   as  witch-hobble,   laurel,  striped 

maple,  and  devil's  club,  which  grow  in  a  forest,  but  do  not  make  trees.    See  Ground 

cover. 
rndergrowth,  n.     The  ground  cover,  underl)rnsh,  and  young  trees  below  the  large 

sapling  stage. 
Underplaiit,  v.     To  plant  young  trees  under  an  existing  stand. 
Underwood,  /*.     See  two-storied  forest. 
I'lieven-aiircd  forest.     Sec  Irregular  forest. 
l'l)per  st<u\v.     See  Two-storied  forest. 
I'sed  I(>ni|:tli.     The  sum  of  the  lengths  of  logs  cut  from  a  tree. 

Syn.:  actual  menihantable  length. 
Used   volume.     The  sum  of  the  volumes  of  logs  cut  from  a  tree. 

Syn.:  actual  merchantable  volume. 
Valuation  area.     A  forest  area  of  known  size  upon  which  measurements  or  other 

detailed  studies  are  made  for  the  determination  of  the  stand  or  yield.    See  Kxperi 

nient  area. 

.Syn.:  sample  area,  sample  plot.     G.,   Probefiache,  Versuchsflache.     F. ,  surface 

d'experience,  place  d'essai. 
Valuation  survey.     The  measurement  or  other  detailed  study  of  the  stand  ujjon  a 

valuation  or  experiment  area. 
Two  kinds  of  valuation  survey  are  distinguished: 

1.  The  .strip  surrri/  comprises  the  measurement  of  a  stand,  or  a  given  portion  of 
it,  upon  strips  usually  1  chain  wide. 

2.  The  j>lot  swcrc// comprises  the  measurement  of  the  stand,  or  a  given  portion  of 
it,  upon  isolated  plots  not  in  the  form  of  strips. 

Veteran,  n.     A  tree  over  2  feet  in  diameter  breasthigh.     See  Tree  class. 
Veteran  forest.     A  forest  of  veterans. 

(t.,  Altholz.     F.,  vieille  futaie. 
Vira:iii  forest.     >S'fe  First  growth. 
V(duiiie  growth.     See  Increment. 
Volume  increment.    *%«  Increment. 
Volume  rotation.     See  Rotation. 

Tolunie  table.     A  tabular  statement  of  the  volume  of  trees  in  board  feet  (jr  other 
units  upon  the  basis  of  their  diameter  breasthigh,  their  diameter  breasthigh  and 
height,  their  age,  or  their  age  and  height. 
G.,  Mas.sentafel.     F.,  tarif  de  cubage. 
Volunteer  growth.     Young  trees  which  have  sprung  up  in  the  open,  as  white  pine 
in  old  fields,  or  cherry  ami  aspen  in  burns.     See  Advance  growth. 
Syn. :  old-field  growth. 
'>Veed  tree.     A  tree  of  a  species  which  has  little  or  no  value. 
G.,  Unholz.     F.,  morts-bois. 


TERMS    IN    FORESTRY.  27 

Windbreak,  /;.     1.  The  breaking  of  trees  hy  \viii<l. 

2.  .Sfc  Shelterbelt. 

3.  See  Windfall. 

Windfall,       1.   A  tree  thrown  l)y  wind. 

2.  An  area  on  which  the  trees  have  been  thrown  l)y  wind. 
Syn.  windbreak.     G.,  Windbrnrh.     F.,  volis. 
Wind-firm,  a.     Able  to  withstand  heavy  wind. 

G.,  t^turnifest,  windfe^t.     F.,  resistant  an  vent. 
Wind  niautlo.     See  Shelterbelt. 
Woodland,  n.     See  Forest. 
Woodlot,  n.     See  Forest. 

"Work,  V.     To  harvest  the  final  yield  under  a  working  plan. 
Working,  u.     The  harvesting  of  the  final  yield  under  a  working  plan. 
G.,  Betrieb.     F.,  exploitation. 

Working  is  a.^iiiud  when  cuttings  are  made  each  year;  jteriodic  when  they  are 
made  after  uniform  periods  of  two  or  more  years;  and  ititermittent  when  they  are 
made  at  irregular  intervals.  Sustained  annual,  periodic,  or  intermittent  workings 
are  those  under  which  the  amount  of  wood  cut  is  so  regulated  that  the  productive 
capacity  of  the  forest  does  not  decrease,  but  produces  a  sustained  yield  (G.,  Xach- 
haltsbetrieb.  F.,  exploitation  a  rendementsoutenu),  which  likewise  may  be  annual, 
periodic,  or  intermittent. 
"Working  area.     The  total  forest  area  managed  under  a  working  plan. 

8yn.:  working  circle.     G.,  Wirtschaftseinheit.     F.,  unite  d'exploitation. 
Working-  circle.     See  "Working  area. 

W^orking  plan.     A  detailed  and  comprehensive  scheme  for  the  best  permanent  use 

of  a  forest. 

G.,  AVirtschaftsplan.     F.,  plan  d'exploitation. 
Working  plan  renewal.     The  preparation  of  a  new  working  plan  for  a  given  tract, 

when  the  present  working  plan  has  been  carried  out,  or  changed  conditions  require 

its  revision. 

Yield,  n.     The  amount  of  wood  at  present  upon,  or  which  after  a  given  period  will 
be  upon,  a  given  area.     See  Present  yield;  Future  yield;  Accident  yield;  Inter- 
mediate yield;  Final  yield;  "Working. 
G.,  Ertrag.     F.,  rendement. 

Yield  table.     See  Present  yield  table;  Future  yield  table. 


Bui    fl     Buteai    of   Forrstr..  U.  S.  Deut.  of  A    rjcul-ur 


Plate  I. 


loggm:n^g  terms. 


[Letters  in  parentheses  following  rtefinitions  indicate  tin-  forest  regions  (see  map)  in  which  the 
terms  as  defined  are  used. 

(Gen.)=General  =  In  all  forest  regions  of  the  United  States. 
(C.  H.  F.  )=Central  Hardwood  Forest. 
(N.  F.)  =  Northern  Forest. 

(App.)=Appalachian  Forest. 
(L.  S.)=Lake  States  Forest. 
(N.W.)=North  Woods. 
(S.  F.)=Southern  Forest. 
(R.  M.  F.)=Rocky  Mountain  Forest. 
(P.  C.  F.)=  Pacific  Coast  Forest. 
In  a  few  instances  very  local  terms  are  ascribed  to  a  State  instead  of  to  a  forest  region.] 

Alder  grab.     The  stem  of  an  alder,  or  other  small  tree,  which  is  bent  over  and 

plugged  into  a  hole  bored  in  a  boom  stick,  or  secured  in  some  other  way,  to  hold  a 

boom  or  logs  inshore.     (N.  F. ) 
Alligator,?!.     1.  A  boat  used  in  handling  floating  logs.     It  can  be  moved  overland 

from  one  body  of  water  to  another  by  its  own  power,  usually  applied  through  drum 

and  cable.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

2.  A  device,  often  made  from  the  fork  of  a  tree,  on  which  the  front  end  of  a  log 

is  placed  to  facilitate  skidding  on  swampy  ground.     (S.  F. ) 
Anchor  line.     A  line  attached  to  a  small  buoy  and  to  one  fluke  of  an  anchor  used 

in  towing  a  raft  of  logs.     It  is  employed  to  free  the  anchor  when  fast  to  rocks  or 

snags.     (N.  F. ) 

Apron,/!.     1.  A  platform  projecting  downstream  from  the  sluiceway  of  a  dam  to 

launch  well  into  the  stream  logs  which  pass  through  the  sluiceway.      (Gen.) 
2.  A  platform  built  of  timbers  at  the  foot  of  a  slide,  which  guides  in  the  desired 

direction  logs  leaving  the  slide.     (Gen.) 
Ark,  7j.     See  Wanigan. 
Back  line.     See  Haul  back. 

Ballhooter,  ».     One  who  rolls  logs  down  a  hillside.     (App. ) 
Bank,  r.     See  Bank  up,  to. 
Bank,  n.     1.  See 'Landing. 

2.  The  logs  cut  or  skidded  in  one  day  above  the  required  amount  and  held  over 

by  the  saw  crew  or  skidders,  to  be  reported  when  the  required  daily  number  is 

not  reached.     (N.  F.) 

Banking  ground.    See  Landing. 
Bank  up,  to.    To  pile  up  logs  on  a  landing.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  bank. 

Barker,  n.     One  who  peels  bark  in  gathering  tanbark.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  peeler,  spudder. 

Barking  iron.    See  Spud. 

29 


30  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

Bark  mark.     A  symbol  chopped  into  the  side  of  a  lo<r  to  iiulieate  its  ownership; 

when  used  with  the  end  mark  it  serves  as  an  additional  means  of  identification. 

(Gen.)     Sei'  ]\Iark. 
Syn.:  side  mark.     (N.  F.) 
Bark  marker.     One  who  cuts  the  hark  mark  on  logs.     (Gen.) 
Barn  boss.     One  who  has  charge  of  the  stables  in  a  logging  camp.     (Gen. ) 

8yn.:  feeder.     (N.  W.) 
Batteu,  n.     A  log  less  than  11  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end.     (Maine. ) 
Battery,  )i.     Two  or  more  donkey  engines  f(jr  dragging  logs,  set  at  intervals  on  a 

long  .skid  road.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Beaver,  n.     See  Swamper. 

Bet'ket,  /(.     A  large  liook  used  in  loading  logs  on  cars  by  means  of  tackle.     ( P.  C.  F. ) 
Bod  a  tree,  to.     To  level  up  the  i>ath  in  which  a  tree  is  to  fall,  so  that  it  may  not 

be  shattered.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Bicycle,  n.     A  traveling  block,  used  on  a  cable  in  steam  skidding.     (S.  F. ) 
Bigness  scale.    ^Set'  Full  scale. 
Big  Wheels.     Sre  Logging  wheels. 
Binder,  n.     A  springy  pole  used  to  tighten  a  binding  chain.     (Gen. ) 

Syn.:  jim  binder. 
Binding  cliain.     A  chain  used  to  bind  together  a  load  of  logs.      (Gen.) 

Syn.:  wrapper  cliain.     (N.  F. ) 
Binding  logs.     Logs  placed  on  the  top  of  the  chain  binding  a  load,  in  order  to  take 

up  the  slack.     (Gen.) 
Birl,  ('.     To  cause  a  floating  log  to  rotate  rapidly  by  treading  upon  it.     (Gen.) 
Bitcli  chain.     A  short,  heavy  chain  with  hook  and  ring,  used  to  fasten  the  lower 

end  of  a  gin  pole  to  a  sled  or  car  when  loading  logs.     (N.  F. ) 
Blaze,  V.     To  mark,  by  cutting  into  trees,  the  course  of  a  boundary,  road,  trail,  or 

the  like.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  spot.     (N.  W.) 
Block,  n.     &(' Brail. 
Blow  down.    See  Windfall. 
Blue  jay.    See  Road  monkey. 
Bluing',  )L     The  result  of  fungus  attack, \  which  turns  the  sapwocd  of  certain  trees 

V)lue.     (Gen.) 
Bob,  n.     See  Dray. 
B<»bber,  n.     See  Deadhead. 
Bob  lt»gs,  to.     To  transport  logs  on  a  lioli  or  dray.     (N.  V.) 

Body  wood.     Cord  wood  cut  from  those  portions  of  the  stems  of  trees  which  are 

clear  of  branches.     (N.  F. ) 
Bolster,  ;/.     See  Bunk. 
Boom,  11.     L(jgs  or  tind)ers  fastened  together  end  to  end  and  used  to  hold  floating 

logs.     The  term  sometimes  includes  the  logs  inclosed,  as  a  boom  of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Boomage,  n.     Toll  for  use  of  a  boom.     (Gen.) 
Boom  buoy.     See  Boom  stay. 

Boom  chain.  A  short  chain  which  fastens  boom  sticks  end  to  end.     (Gen.) 
Boom  company.     A  corporation  engaged  in  handling  floating  logs,  and  owning 

booms  and  booming  privileges.      (N.  F. ) 


LOGGIXG    TERMS.  31 

Boom  i)iii.     A  wooden  pint;  used  to  fasten  to  boom  sticks  the  chain,  rope,  or  withe 

which  holds  them  together.     (Gen.) 
Boom  rat.    One  who  works  on  a  boom.     (N.  F. ) 
Boom  stay.    A  heavy  weight  used  to  anchor  booms  in  deep  water;  its  position 

is  indicated  by  ii  pole  or  tioat  attaclied  to  it.     (X.  F. ) 
Syn. :  boom  buoy. 
Boom  stick.     A  timber  which  forms  part  of  a  boom.      (Gen.) 
Bottle  butted,    ,9-r  Swell  butted. 
Bottom  sill.     See  Mudsill. 
Brail,  r.     To  fasten  logs  in  brails. 
Brail,  n.     A  section  of  a  log  raft,  six  of  which  make  an  average  tow.      (L.  S. ) 

yyn.:  block.     (S.  F.) 
Brake  sled.    A  logging  sled  so  constructed  that,  when  the  pole  team  holds  back,  a 

heavy  iron  on  the  side  of  each    runner  of  the  forward  sled  is  forced  into  the 

roadbed.     (X.  F.) 
Brand,  it.     See  Mark. 
Break  out.  to.     1.  To  start  a  sled  whose  runners  are  frozen  to  the  ground.     (N. 

W.,  L.  S.) 
2.  To  open  a  logging  road  after  heavy  snowfall.     (X.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Breastwork  log.    See  Fender  skid. 
Briar,  ».     A  crosscut  saw.     (Gen.) 
Bridle,  a.     A  device  for  controlling  the  speed  of  logs  on  a  skid  road.     It  consists  of 

a  short  rope  with  two  hooks  at  one  end,  which  are  driven  into  the  first  log  of  the 

turn;  at  the  other  end  is  a  clamp  which  runs  over  the  cable.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Bridle  man.     One  who  follows  a  turn  of  logs  down  the  skid  road  and  tends  the 

"bridle."     (P.  C.  F.) 
Broad  leaf,  a.     See  Hardwood. 
Brow  skid.     The  chief  beam  in  a  frame  to  which  tackle  for  loading  logs  on  cars  is 

fastened.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:  draw  skid,  lead  log. 
Brush  a  road,  to.    To  cover  with  brush  the  mudholes  and  swampy  places  in  a 

logging  road,  to  make  it  solid.     (X.  F.) 
Brush  snow  fence.     A  snowbreak  to  protect  a  logging  road;  used  most  commonly 

on  wide  marshes.     It  consists  of  lirusli  which  is  set  upright  in  the  ground  before 

it  freezes.      (X.  F. ) 
Bruiting  crew.     A  crew  which  rolls  logs  down  slopes  too  steep  for  teams.     (App. ) 
Buck,  c.     1.  To  saw  felled  trees  into  logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.  To  bring  or  carry,  as  to  buck  water  or  wood.     (Gen.) 
Bucker,  ?).     1.  One  who  saws  felled  trees  into  logs.     (P.  C.  F. )     Syn. :  cross  cutter. 

2.  One  who  brings  or  carries.     See  Buck. 
Buckwheat,  r.     See  Hang  up,  to. 
Buckwheater.  ».     A  novice  at  lumbering.     (Gen.) 
Bull  chain.     1.  A  very  heavy  chain,  to  which  a  number  of  siiort  chains,  with 

hooks  on  one  end  and  dogs  on  the  other,  are  attached.     It  is  used  to  draw  logs 

from  the  mill  pond  up  the  gangway.     (Gen.) 
2.  See  Jack  chain. 
Bull  cook.    See  Chore  Ijov. 


32  TERMS    USED    IX    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

Bull  donkey.     A  large  donkey  engine  which,  by  drum  and  cable,  drags  logs  from 

the  place  where  they  are  yarded  to  a  landing.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Bully,  n.     A  common  name  for  the  foreman  or  boss  of  a  logging  camp.     (N.  F. ) 
Buinmor,  d.     A  small  truck  with  two  low  wheels  and  a  long  pole,  used  in  skidding 

logs.     (N.  F.,S.  F.) 
Syn. :  drag  cart,  skidder. 
Bunch  load,  to.     To  encircle  several  logs  with  a  chain  and  load  them  at  once,  by 

steam  or  horsepower.     ( N.  F. ) 
Bunch  logs,  to.     To  collect  logs  in  one  place  for  loading.      (Gen.) 
Bunk,  '•.     To  place  upon  the  bunks,  as  to  "bunk  a  log."     (Gen.) 
Bunk,  /(.     1 .  The  heavy  timber  upon  which  the  logs  rest  on  a  logging  sled.     (N.  F. ) 
Syn.:  bolster. 

2.  The  cross  beam  on  a  log  car  or  truck,  on  which  the  logs  rest.     (Gen.) 

3.  A  log  car  or  truck.      (S.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 
Bunk  chain.     See  Toggle  chain. 

Bunk  hook.     The  hook  attached  to  the  end  of  the  bunk  on  a  logging  car,  which 

may  be  raised  to  hold  the  logs  in  place  or  lowered  to  release  them.     (Gen. ) 
Bunk  load.     A  load  of  logs  not  over  one  log  deep;  i.  e.,  in  which  every  log  rests  on 

the  bunks.     (Gen.) 
Bunk  spikes.     Sharp  spikes  set  upright  in  the  Inmks  of  a  logging  sled  to  hold  the 

logs  in  place.     (N.  F. ) 
Bush  a  road,  to.     To  mark  the  route  of  a  logging  road  across  a  marsh  or  the  ice 

by  setting  up  bushes.     (N.  F. ) 
Butt,  n.     The  base  of  a  tree,  or  the  big  end  of  a  log.     (Gen.) 
Butt  cut.     1.  The  first  log  above  the  stump.     ((Jen.) 
Syn.:  butt  log.     (Gen.) 
2.  In  gathering  tanbark,  the  section  of  bark  taken  from  tlie  butt  of  a  tree  before 

felling  it  for  further  peeling.     (N.  F. ) 
Butt  hook.     The  hook  by  which  the  cable  is  attached  to  the  tatikle  on  the  logs. 

[V.  C.  F.)  ■ 

Butt  log.     See  Butt  cut. 

Butt  off",  to.     1.  To  cut  a  piece  from  the  end  of  a  logon  account  of  a  defect.     'Gen. '\ 
Syn.:  long  butt,  to.     (P.  C.  F.,  App. ) 
2.  To  square  the  end  of  a  log.      (N.  F. ) 
Buttress,  n.     A  wall  or  abutment  built  along  a  stream  to  prevent  the  logs  in  a  tlrive 

from  cutting  the  bank  or  jamming.      (Gen. ) 
Butt  team.     In  a  logging  team  of  four  or  more,  the  pair  nearest  the  load.     (Gen.) 
Caiup  inspector.     A  lazy  lumberjack,  who  goes  from  one  logging  camp  to  another, 

working  only  a  short  time  in  each.     (N.  F. ) 
Cannon  a  log,  to.     In  loading  logs  by  steam  or  horse  power,  to  send  up  a  log  so 

that  it  swings  crosswise,  instead  of  parallel  to  the  load.     (N.  F. ) 
Cant  dog.     See  Cant  hook. 
Cant  hook.     A  tool  like  a  peavey,  but  having  a  toe  ring  and  lip  at  the  end  instead  of 

a  pike.     *SVe  Peavey.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  cant  dog. 
Cap,  n.     A  cone  of  sheet  iron  or  steel,  with  a  hole  in  the  end  through  which  a  chain 

passes,  which  is  fitted  over  the  end  of  a  log  before  snaking  it,  to  prevent  catching 

on  stumps,  roots,  or  other  obstacles,  in  steam  skidding.     (S.  F. ) 


LOGGING    TERMS.  33 

Catamaran,  n.     A  small  raft  carrying  a  windlass  and  grapple,  used  to  recover  sunken 
logs.      (Gen. ) 
Syn. :  sinker  boat  (Gen.),  monitor,  pontoon  (P.  C.  F. ). 
Catch   boom.     A  boom  fastened   across  stream  to  catch   and   hold  floating   logs. 

(Gen.) 
€atfaee,  n.     A  partly  healetl  over  fire  scar  on  the  stem  of  a  tree.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Catpicce,  n.     A  small  stick  in  which  holes  are  made  at  regular  intervals,  placed  on 
the  top  of  uprights  firmly  set  in  floating  booms.     The  uprights  are  fitted  to  enter 
the  holes  in  the  catpiece,  so  as  to  narrow  or  widen  the  space  between  the  booms 
at  the  entrance  to  a  sluiceway  or  sorting  jack.     The  catpiece  is  held  by  the  uprights 
high  enough  above  water  to  allow  logs  to  float  freely  under  it.      (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 
Cattyman,  n.     An  expert  river  driver.     (N.  F. ) 

Center  jam.     A  jam  formed  on  an  obstacle  in  the  middle  of  a  stream,  and  which 
does  not  reach  either  shore.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  stream  jam. 
Chain  g-rapples.    See  Grapples. 
Chain  tender.     See  Sled  tender. 
Check,  n.     A  longitudinal  crack  in  timber  caused  by  too  rapid  seasoning.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  season  check. 
Cheese  block.    See  Chock  block. 
Chock  block.     A  small  wedge  or  block  used  to  prevent  a  log  from  rolling.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  cheese  l)lock.      (P.  C.  F.) 
Choker,  n.     A  noose  of  wire  rope  by  which  a  log  is  dragged.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Choker  man.     The  member  of  a  yarding  crew  who  fastens  the  choker  on  the  logs. 

(P.  C.  F.) 
Chopper,  n.     See  Faller. 

Chore  boy.     One  who  cleans  up  the  sleeping  quarters  and  stable  in  a  logging  camp, 
cuts  firewood,  builds  fires,  and  carries  water.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  bull  cook,  flunkey,  shanty  boss. 
Chunk,  r.     To  clear  the  ground,  with  engine  or  horses,  of  obstructions  whicih  can 

not  be  removed  by  hand.      (P.  C.  F. ) 
Chunk  up,  to.     To  collect  and  pile  for  burning  the  slash  left  after  logging.     (N.  W., 

L.  S.) 
Churn  butted.     *S'ee  Swell  butted. 
Chute,  n.     See  Slide. 

Coal  off,  to.     To  cut  a  forest  clean  for  charcoal  wood.     (N.  F.) 
Commissary,  ».     A  general  store  for  supplying  lumbermen.     (App.,S.  F. )    See  Van. 
Conk,  11.     1.  The  decay  in  the  wood  of  trees  caused  by  a  fungus.     (N.  F.,  P.  C.  F. ) 

2.  The  visible  fruiting  organ  of  a  tree  fungus.     (N.  F.,  P.  C.  F. ) 
Conky,  a.     Affected  ])y  conk.     (N.  F.,  P.  C.  F. ) 

Cook  camp.     The  building  used  as  kitchen  and  dining  room  in  a  logging  camp. 
(Gen.) 
Syn. :  cook  house,  cook  shanty. 
Cookee,  n.     Assistant  cook  and  dishwasher  in  a  logging  camp.     (Gen.) 
Cook  house.     See  Cook  camp. 
Cook  shanty.    See  Cook  camp. 

Corkscrew,?;.     A  geared  logging  locomotive.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Syn.:  stem- winder.     (App. ) 


34  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

roriicr  binds.     Four  stout  chains,  used  on  logging  sleds,  to  bind  the  two  outside 

logs  of  the  lower  tier  to  the  bunks,  and  thus  give  a  firm  bottom  to  the  load.     ( N.  F. ) 
Corner  man.     In  building  a  camp  or  barn  of  logs,  one  who  notches  the  logs  so  that 

tht'v  will  tit  closely  and  make  a  square  corner.     (N.  F.) 
Coupling:  grab.     See  Grapples. 
Crab,  n.     A  small  raft  bearing  a  windlass  and  anchor,  used  to  move  log  rafts  upstream 

or  across  a  lake.     (N.  F.,  S.  F.) 
Cradle,  n.     A  framework  of  timbers  in  which  ocean-going  rafts  of  logs  are  built. 

(P.  C.  F.) 
Cradle  knolls.     Small  knolls  which  require  grading  in  the  construction  of  logging 

roads.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Crazy  oliain.     The  short  chain  used  to  hold  up  that  tongue  of  a  si)rinkler  sled  which 

is  not  in  use.      (N.  F. ) 
Crib,  n.     Specifically,  a  raft  of  logs;  loosely  applied  to  a  boom  of  logs.     (N.  F. ) 
Crib  lojjs,  to.    To  surround  floating  logs  with  a  boom  and  draw  them  by  a  windlass 

on  a  raft  (a  crab),  or  to  tow  them  with  a  steamboat.     (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 
Cross  chains.     Chains  connecting  the  front  and  rear  sleds  of  a  logging  sled.    (N.  F. ) 
Cross  cutter.    See  Bucker. 

Cross  liaul.     The  cleared  space  in  which  a  team  moves  in  cross  hauling.     (N.  F. ) 
Cross  haul,  to.     To  load  cars  or  sleds  with  logs  by  horsepower  and  crotch  or  load- 
ing chain.     (Gen.) 
Crotch,  r.     To  cut  notches  on  opposite  sides  of  a  log  near  the  end,  into  which  dogs 

are  fastened.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Crotch,  n.    See  Dray. 

Crotcli  chain.     A  tackle  for  loading  logs  on  sleds,  cars,  or  skidways  by  cross  haul- 
ing.    (Gen.) 
Crotch  tong'ue.     Two  pieces  of  wood,  in  the  form  of  a  V,  joining  the  front  and  rear 

sleds  of  a  logging  sled.     (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 
Cruise,  v.     To  estimate  the  amount  and  value  of  standing  timber.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  estimate,  value. 
Cruiser,  n.     One  who  cruises.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  estimator,  land  looker,  valuer. 
Cull,  11.     Logs  which  are  rejected,  or  parts  of  logs  deducted  in  measurement  on 

account  of  defects.     (Gen. ) 
Cut,  n.     A  season's  output  of  logs.     (Gen. ) 
Cut  a  log,  to.     To  move  one  end  of  a  log  forward  or  backward,  so  that  the  log  will 

roll  in  the  desired  direction.     (Gen. ) 
Cut  off.     An  artificial  channel  l)y  which  the  course  of  a  stream  is  straightened,  to 

facilitate  log  driving.     (N.  F. ) 
Deacon  seat.    The  bench  in  front  of  the  sleeping  bunks  in  a  logging  camji.     (N.  F. ) 
Deadener,  n.     A  heavy  log  or  timber,  with  spikes  set  in  the  butt  end,  so  fastened 

in  a  log  slide  that  the  logs  passing  under  it  come  in  contact  with  the  spikes  and 

have  their  speed  retarded.     (Gen.) 
Deadhead,  )f.     A  sunken  or  partly  sunken  log.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  sinker  (Gen.),  bobber  (N.  F. ). 
Deadman,  ti.     A  fallen  tree  on  the  shore,  or  a  timber  to  which  the  hawser  of  a 

boo'u  is  attached.     (N.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 
Deadwater.    See  Stillwater. 


LOGGING   TERMS.  35 

Decker,  n.     One  who  rolls  logs  upon  a  skid  way  or  log  deck.     (Gen. ) 

Deckiug:  cliain.    See  Loading  chain. 

Deck  up,  to.     To  pile  logs  upon  a  skidway.     (Gen.) 

Deer  foot.  A  V-shapeil  iron  catch  on  the  side  of  a  logging  car,  in  which  the  bind- 
ing chain  is  fastened.     (Gen.) 

Dehorn,  v.  To  saw  off  the  ends  of  logs  hearing  the  owner's  mark  and  put  on  a  new 
mark.     (Kentucky.) 

Dingle,  n.  The  roofed-over  space  between  the  kitchen  and  the  sleeping  quarters 
in  a  logging  camp,  commonly  used  as  a  storeroom.     (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 

Dinkey,  n.     A  small  logging  locomotive.     (App.,  S.  F. ) 

Dog,  n.     A  short,  heavy  piece  of  steel,  bent  and  pointed  at  one  end  and  with  an  eye 
or  ring  at  the  other.     It  is  used  for  many  purposes  in  logging,  and  is  sometimes  so 
shaped  that  a  blow  directly  against  the  line  of  draft  will  loosen  it.      (Gen.) 
Syn.:  tail  hook.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Dog'  boat.     See  Eigging  sled. 

Dogger,  u.  One  who  attaches  the  dogs  or  hooks  to  a  log  before  it  is  steam  skidded. 
(S^F./P.  C.  F.) 

Dog  hook.     1.  The  strong  hook  on  the  end  of  a  dogwarp.     (N.  F.) 

2.  A  hook  on  the  end  of  a  haul-up  chain  of  a  size  to  permit  its  being  hooked 
into  a  link  of  the  chain  when  the  latter  is  looped  around  a  log  or  other  object. 
(P.  C.  F.) 

Dogs,  n.     See  Skidding  tong8. 

Dogwarp,  n.  A  rope  with  a  strong  hook  on  the  end,  which  is  used  in  breaking 
dangerous  jams  on  falls  and  rapids  and  in  moving  logs  from  other  difficult  posi- 
tions.    (N.  F. ) 

Dog  wedge.  An  iron  wedge  with  a  ring  in  the  butt,  which  is  driven  into  the  end 
of  a  log  and  a  chain  hitched  in  the  ring  for  skidding  the  log  by  horsepower;  also 
used  in  gathering  up  logs  on  a  drive  by  running  a  rope  through  the  rings  and  pull- 
ing a  number  of  logs  at  a  time  through  marshes  or  partially  submerged  meadows 
to  the  channel.     ( N.  F. ) 

Dolly,  n.     See  Upright  roller. 

Dolphin,  ».     A  cluster  of  piles  to  which  a  boom  is  secured.     (P.  C.  F. ) 

Donkey,  n.  A  portable  steam  engine,  equipped  with  drum  and  cable,  used  in  steam 
logging.    See  Eoad  donkey ;  Yarding  donkey ;  Bull  donkey ;  Spool  donkey.   ( P.  C.  F. ) 

Donkey  sled.  The  heavy  sled-like  frame  upon  which  a  donkey  engine  is  fastened. 
(P.  C.  F.) 

Dote,  n.  The  general  term  used  by  lumbermen  to  denote  decay  or  rot  in  timber. 
(Gen.) 

Doty,  a.     Decayed.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  dozy. 
Double  couplers.     Two  coupling  gral)s  joined  by  a  short  cable,  used  for  fa.stening 
logs  together.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :  four  paws. 
Double  header.     A  place  from  which  it  is  possible  to  haul  a  full  load  of  logs  to  the 
landing,  and  where  partial  loads  are  topped  out  or  finished  to  the  full  hauling 
capacity  of  teams.     (X.  W.,  L.  S. ) 
Down-hill  clevis.     A  brake  on  a  logging  sled,  consisting  of  a  clevis  encircling  the 
runner,  to  the  bottom  of  which  a  heavy  square  piece  of  iron  is  welded.     (N.  F. ) 
Dozy,  a.     See  Doty. 


36  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

Drag  cart.    See  Bummer. 

X^viiZ  in.  to.     See  Dray  in,  to. 

Urair  r(»a(i.     See  Dray  road;  Gutter  r^ad. 

Drag-  sled.    See  Dray. 

Draw  liook.     See  Gooseneck. 

Dra>v  skid.     See  Brow  nkid. 

Dray,  ».     A  single  sled  used  in  dragging  logs.     One  end  of  the  log  rest.«  upon  the 

sled.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  bob,  crotch,  drag  sled,  go-devil,  lizard,  scoot,  skidding  sled,  slooj),  travois. 
Dray  in,  to.     To  drag  logs  from  the  i)lace  where  they  are  cut  directly  to  the  skid- 
way  or  landing.      (N.  F. ) 
Syn. :  drag  in,  to. 
Dray  road.     A  narrow  road,  cut  wide  enougli  to  allow  the  passage  of  a  team  and 

dray.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  drag  road. 
Drive,  r.     To  float  logs  or  timbers  from  the  forest  to  the  mill  or  shipping  point. 

(Gen.) 
Syn. :  float. 
Drive,  */.     1.   A  body  of  logs  or  timbers  in  ])rocess  of  being  floated  from  the  forest 

to  the  mill  or  shipping  point.     (Gen. ) 

2.  That  part  of  logging  which  consists  in  floating  logs  or  timbers.     (Gen.) 
Drum  los'S,  to.     To  haul  logs  by  drum  and  cable  out  of  a  hollow  or  cove.     (App.) 
Dry-ki,  /(.     Trees  killed  by  flooding.     (N.  F.) 
Dry  pick,  to.     As  applied  to  a  jam,  to  remove  logs  singly  wliilc  the  water  is  cut  off. 

(N.  F.)  ■  ' 

Dry  roll,  to.     In  saciking  the  rear,  to  roll  stranded  logs  into  the  bed  of  the  stream 

from  which  the  water  has  been  cut  off  preparatory  to  flooding.     (N.  F. ) 
Dry  rot.     Decay  in  timber  without  apparent  moisture.     (Gen.) 
Dry  slide.     See  Slide. 
Dry  sloop,  to.     To  sl(jop  logs  on  bare  ground  when  the  sloj>e  is  so  steep  that  it 

would  be  dangerous  to  sloop  on  snow.      (N.  F. ) 
Diidler,  n.     See  Dudley. 
Dudley,  n.     An  engine  for  hauling  logs,  which  propels  itself  and  drags  its  load  by 

levolving  a  large  spool  around  which  are  several  turns  of  a  cable  lixed  at  each  end 

of  the  track.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:  dudler. 
Diiflle,  n.     The  personal  belongings  of  a  woodsman  or  lund)erjack  which  he  takes 

into  the  woods.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  dunnage.     (N.  W. ) 
Dump  Iiook.     A  levered  chain  grab  hook  attacihed  to  the  evener  to  which  a  team  is 

hitched  in  loading  logs.     A  movement  of  the  lever  releases  the  hook  from  the 

logging  chain  without  stopping  the  team.     (N.  F. ) 
l>iim]>  logs,  to.     To  roll  logs  over  a  bluff,  or  from  a  logging  car  or  sled  into  the  water. 

(Gen.) 
Dunnage,  /(.     Sec  Duttle. 
Dust  a  dam,  to.     To  fill  up  with  earth  or  gravel  the  craiiks  or  small  holes  between 

planks  in  the  gate  of  a  splash  dam.     (N.  W. ) 
Dutchman,  n.     A  short  stick  placed  transversely  between  the  outer  logs  of  a  load 

to  divert  the  load  toward  the  middle  and  so  keep  any  logs  from  falling  off.     ( N.  F. ) 


LOGGING    TEKMS.  37 

Eiul  mark.    See  Mark. 
Ksiimato,  r.     See  Cruise. 
Estimator,  ?i.     See  Cruiser. 
Face  log:.    See  Head  log. 

Faller,  ».     One  who  fells  trees.     (Gen.)     aSpc  Head  faller;  Second  faller. 

Syn.:  sawyer  (Gen.),  chopi)er  (App. ). 
Falling  ax.     An  ax  with  a  long  helve  and  a  long,  narrow  bit,  designed  especially 
for  felling  trees.     (Gen. ) 

Falling  wedge.     A  wedge  used  to  throw  a  tree  in  the  desired  direction,  by  driving 
it  into  the  saw  kerf.     (Gen.) 

Feeder,  /*.     See  Barn  boss. 
Fender  boom.     See  Shear  boom. 

Fender  skid.     A  skid  placed  on  the  lower  side  of  a  skidding  trail  on  a  slope  to  hold 
the  log  on  the  trail  while  being  skidded.      (Gen.) 
Syn.:  breastwork  log,  glancer,  shear  skid. 
Fid  hook.     A  slender,  flat  hook  used  to  keep  another  hook  from  slipping  on  a  chain, 

(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Flier,  71.     One  who  files  the  crosscut  saws  in  the  woods.      (Gen.) 
Syn. :  saw  fitter. 

Fitter,  n.     1.  One  who  notches  the  tree  for  felling  and  after  it  is  felled  marks  the 
log  lengths  into  which  it  is  to  be  cut.      (N.  F. ) 

2.  One  who  cuts  limbs  from  felled  trees  and  rings  and  slits  the  bark  preparatory 
to  peeling  tanbark.     (N.  F. ) 

Float,  V.     See  Drive. 

Float  road.     A  channel  cleared  in  a  swamp  and  used  to  float  cypress  logs  from  the 

woods  to  the  boom  at  the  river  or  mill.     (S.  F.) 
Flood,  V.     See  Splash. 
Flood  dam.     See  Splash  dam. 
Flnme,  /•.     To  transport  logs  or  timbers  by  a  flume.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  sluice. 
Flume,  /(.     An  inclined  trough  in  which  water  runs,  used  in  transporting  logs  or 
timbers.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  sluice,  water  slide,  wet  slide. 
Flunkey,  n.     1.  An  assistant,  usually  either  to  the  engineer  of  a  donkey  engine  or 
to  the  cook  in  a  logging  camp.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
2.  See  Chore  boy. 
Flying  drive.     A  drive  the  main  portion  of  which  is  put  through  with  the  utmost 

dispatch,  without  stopping  to  pick  rear.     (N.  F. ) 
Fly  roll  way.     A  skid  way  or  landing  on  a  steep  slope,  from  which  the  logs  are 

released  at  once  by  removing  the  brace  which  holds  them.     (N.  F. ) 
Fore-and-aft  road.     A  skid  road  made  of  logs  placed  parallel  to  its  direction,  mak- 
ing the  road  resemble  a  chute.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Syn.:  stringer  road. 
Four  paws.     See  Double  couplers. 
Frog,  71.   1.  The  junction  of  two  branches  of  a  flume.     ( P.  C.  F. ) 

2.  A  timber  placed  at  the  mouth  of  a  slide  to  direct  the  discharge  of  tlie  logs. 
(Gen.)   Syn.:  throw  out. 
Full   scale.     Measurement  of   logs,  in    which   no  reduction   ia  made  for  defects. 
(Gen). 
Syn.:  bigness  scale.     (N.  F.) 


38  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY   AND    LOGGING. 

Gaiigrway,  n.  The  incline  plane  up  which  logs  are  moved  from  the  water  into  a 
sawmill.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  jack  ladder,  log  jack,  log  way,  slip. 
Uap  stick.     The  pole  placed  across  the  entrance  of  a  sorting  jack  to  close  it,  when 

not  in  use.     (Gen.) 
iiee  throw.     A  heavy,  wooden  lever,  with  a  curved  iron  point,  used  to  1)reak  out 
logging  sleds.     (N.  F. ) 
Syn. :  starting  bar. 
Oiii  pole.     A  pole  secured  by  guy  ropes,  to  the  top  of  which  tackle  for  loading  logs 

is  fastened.     (Gen. ) 
(irlaiiccr,  n.     See  Fender  skid. 
(Tlanciiig  boom.    See  Shear  boom. 

Glisse  skids.     Freshly  peeled  skids  up  which  logs  are  slid  instead  of  rolled  when 
being  loaded.     (N.  F.') 
Syn. :  slip  skids. 
(Jo-back  road.     A  road  upon  which  unloaded  logging  sleds  can  return  to  the  skid- 
wavs  for  reloading,  without  meeting  the  loaded  sleds  en  route  to  the  landing. 
(N.F.) 
Syn. :  short  roatl. 
Go-devil.    See  Dray. 

Gooseneck,  n.     1.  A  wooden  bar  used  to  couple" two  logging  trucks.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  rooster.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.  The  point  of  draft  on  a  logging  sled;  it  consists  of  a  curved  iron  hook  ])olted 
to  the  roll.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:  draw  hook. 

3.  A  curved  iron  driven  into  the  bottom  of  a  slide  to  check  the  speed  of  descend- 
ing logs.     ( App. ) 

Goosepen.     A  large  hole  burned  in  a  standing  tree.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Grab  hook.     A  hook  having  a  narrow  throat,  adapted  to  grasp  any  link  of  a  chain. 
(Gen. ) 

Grab  link.    See  Slip  grab. 
Grabs,  //.     See  Skidding  tongs. 

Grab  skipper.  A  short  iron  pry  or  hammer,  used  to  remove  the  skidding  tongs 
from  a  log.      (App.,  S.  F.) 

Grapples,  n.  1.  Two  small  iron  dogs  joined  by  a  short  chain,  and  used  to  couple 
logs  end  to  end  when  skidding  on  mountains,  so  that  several  logs  may  be  skidded 
by  one  horse  at  the  same  time.     ( N.  F. ) 

Syn.:  chain  grapples,  coupling  grab.      (P.  C.  F.) 
2.  See  Skidding  tongs. 

Gravel  a  dam,  to.  To  cover  with  gravel  or  earth  the  upstream  side  of  the  timber 
work  of  a  dam,  to  make  it  water  tight.     (N.  F. ) 

Greaser,  n.     See  Road  monkey. 

Grips,  n.     See  Skidding  tongs. 

Ground  loader.    See  Send-up  man. 

Grouser,  n.  A  large  and  long  stick  of  squared  timber  sharpened  at  the  lower  end 
and  placed  in  the  bow  of  a  steam  logging  boat;  it  takes  the  place  of  an  anchor  in 
shallow  water,  and  can  be  raised  or  lowered  l)y  steam  power.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

(lUard  a  hill,  to.     To  keep  a  logging  road  on  a  steep  decline  in  condition  for  use. 

(N.F.) 


LOGGING    TERMS.  39 

Giin,  V.     To  aim  a  tree  in  felling  it.     In  the  case  of  very  large,  brittle  trees,  such  as 
redwood,  a  sighting  device  (gunning  stick)  is  used.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:  point,  swing.     (Gen.) 
(Tiiiiiiiiig:  stick.     See  Gun. 
Gnttermaii.    See  Swamper. 
<iutter  road.     The  path  followed  in  skidding  logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  drag  road,  runway,  skidding  trail,  snaking  trail. 
Handbarrow.     Two  strong,  light  poles  held  in  position  by  rung.s,  upon  which  l)ark 
or  wood  is  carried  by  two  men.      (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 
Syn. :  ranking  bar. 
Hand  pike.    A  piked  lever,  usually  6  to  8  feet  long,  for  handling  floating  logs.    ( (ien. ) 
Hand  skidder.     One  who  accompanies  a  log  as  it  is  being  dragged  and  places  short 

skids  beneath  it.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Hang  the  boom,  to.     To  put  the  boom  in  place.      (Gen. ) 

Hang  up,  to.     1.  To  fell  a  tree  so  that  it  catches  against  another  instead  of  falling  to 
the  ground.      (Gen. ) 

Syn.:  lodge  (Gen.),  buckwheat  (App. ) 

2.   As  applied  to  river  driving,  to  discontinue;  thus  a  drive  may  be  "  hung  up" 
for  lack  of  water  or  for  some  other  reason. 
Hardwood,  a.     As  applied  to  trees  and  logs,  broadleafed,  belonging  to  the  dicoty- 
ledons.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  broadleaf. 
Hardwood,  n.     A  broadleafed,  or  dicotyledonous,  tree.     (Gen.) 
Haul,  n.     In  logging,  the  distance  and  route  over  which  teams  must  go  between  two 

given  points,  as  between  the  yard  or  skidway  and  the  landing.     (Gen.) 
Haul  back.     A  small  wire  rope,  traveling  between  the  donkey  engine  and  a  pulley 
set  near  the  logs  to  be  dragged,  used  to  return  the  cable.      (P.  C.  F. ) 
Syn.:  back  line,  pull  back,  trip  line. 
Haul  up.     A  light  chain  and  hook  by  which  a  horse  may  be  hitched  to  a  cable  in 

order  to  move  it  where  desired.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Hay  road.    &<?  Tote  road. 
Hay  wire  outfit.     A  contemptuous  term  for  loggers  with  poor  logging  equipment. 

(N.  F.) 
Head  block.     The  log  placed  under  the  front  end  of  the  skids  in  a  skidway  to  raise 

them  to  the  desired  height.     (N.  F. ) 
Head  driver.     An  expert  river  driver  who.  during  the  drive,  is  stationed  at  a  point 
where  a  jam  is  feared.     Head  drivers  usually  work  in  pairs.     (N.  F. ) 
Syn.:  log  watch  (N.  F.),  jam  cracker  (P.  C.  F. ) 
Head  faller.    The  chief  of  a  crew  of  fallers.      (P.  C.  F.) 
Head  log.     1.  The  front  bottom  log  on  a  skidway.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  face  log. 

2.  The  front  log  in  a  turn.      (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :  lead  log. 
Head  push.     See  Straw  boss. 
Headquarters,  n.     In  logging,  the  distributing  point  for  supplies,  equipment,  and 

mail;  not  usually  the  executive  or  administrative  center.     (Gen. ) 
Head  tree.    Jn  steam  skidding,  the  tree  to  which  the  cable  upon  whii-h  the  traveler 
runs  is  attached.     (S.  F. ) 


40  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

Hcadworks,  ».  A  j^latform  or  raft,  with  windlass  or  ranstan,  whicli  is  attached  to 
the  front  of  a  log  raft  or  V>ooni  oi  logs,  for  warping,  kedging,  or  winding  it  through 
lakes  and  still  water,  liy  haml  or  horse  power.      (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Helper,  71.     See  Second  taller. 

Hoist,  n.     See  Loading  tripod. 

Holdintr  boom.     See  Storage  l)ooni. 

Hook  tender.  The  foreman  of  a  yarding  crew;  specifically,  one  who  directs  the 
attaching  of  the  cable  to  a  turn  of  logs.     (P.  C.  F. ) 

Horse  dam.  A  temporary  dam  made  by  placing  large  logs  across  a  stream,  in  order 
to  raise  the  Avater  behind  it,  so  as  to  float  the  rear.     (N.  F.) 

Horse  logs,  to.  In  river  driving,  to  drag  stranded  logs  back  to  the  stream  by  the 
use  of  peaveys.     (N.  F. ) 

Hovel,  n.     A  stable  for  logging  teams.     (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 

Ice  a  road,  to.  To  sininkle  water  on  a  logging  road  so  that  a  coating  of  ice  may 
form,  thus  facilitating  the  hauling  of  logs.     (N.  F. ) 

Ice  guards.  Heavy  timbers  fastened  fan  shaped  about  a  cluster  of  boom  piles  at  an 
angle  of  approximately  30  degrees  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  prevent  the 
destruction  of  the  boom  by  ice,  through  forcing  it  to  mount  the  guards  and  be 
broken  up.     (N.  F. ) 

Jack  cliniii.     An  endless  spiked  chain,  whicti  moves  logs  from  one  point  to  another, 
usually  from  the  mill  pond  into  the  sawmill.      (Gen.) 
Syn.:  bull  chain.      (P.  C.  F.) 
Jack  ladder.    See  Gangway. 

Jackpot,  ;(.     1.  A  contemptuous  expression  applied  to  an  unskillful  piece  of  work 
in  logging.      (N.  F.) 
2.  An  irregular  pile  of  logs.      (App. ) 
Jam,  n.  A  stoppage  or  congestion  of  logs  in  a  stream,  due  to  an  obstruction  or  to 
low  water.     (Gen.) 

Jam  cracker.    See  Head  driver. 

Jammer,  n.     An  improved  form  of  gin,  mouTited  on  a  movable  framework,  and  used 

to  load  logs  on  sleds  and  cars  by  horsepower.     (N.  F. ) 
Jam,  to  break  a.     To  start  in  motion  logs  which  have  jammed.     (Gen.) 
Jay  Iia^vk,  to.     To  strip  one  4-foot  length  of  bark  from  a  tanbark  oak,  leaving  the 

tree  standing.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Jiboo,  r.     To  remove  a  dog  from  a  log.     (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 
Jigger,  v.     To  pull  a  log  by  horsepower  over  a  level  place  in  a  slide.     (Gen. ) 

Syn. :  lazy  haul,  to. 
Jim  binder.     See  Binder. 
Jobber,  n.     A  logging  contractor  or  subcontractor.      (Gen.) 

Jobber's  sun.  A  term  applied  to  the  moon  in  a  jobber's  or  contractor's  logging 
camp,  on  account  of  the  early  and  late  hours  of  commencing  and  ending  work. 
(X.  \V.,  L.  S.)  " 

Jumper,  n.     A  sled  shod  with   wood,  used  lor  hauling  supplies  over  bare  ground 

into  a  logging  camp.     (  X.  F. ) 
Syn.:  tote  sled. 
Katydid,  n.     See  Logging  wheels. 
Key  log.     In  river  driving,  a  log  which  is  so  caught  or  wedged  that  a  jam  is  formed 

and  held.     (Gen.) 


LOGGING   TERMS.  41 

Kilhigf,  n.     A  short,  stout  pole  used  as  a  lever  or  brace  to  direct  the  fall  of  a  tree. 
(N.  W.) 

Knot,  '•.     See  Limb. 

Knot  bumper.     See  Limber. 

Knotter,  n.     See  Limber. 

Laker,  «.     A  loj;  driver  expert  at  handliiit;  logs  on  lakes.     (N.  F. ) 

Landing-,  u.     1.   A  place  to  which  logs  are  hauled  or  skidded  preparatory  to  trans- 
portation by  water  or  rail.     A  rough  and  tumble  landing  is  one  in  which  no  attempt 
is  made  to  pile  the  logs  regularly.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  bank,  banking  ground,  log  dump,  roUway,  yard. 

2.  A  platform,  usually  at  the  foot  of  a  skid  road,  where  logs  are  collected  and 
loaded  on  cars.  A  Ihjldniug  Inndbuj  is  one  having  such  an  incline  that  the  logs 
may  roll  upon  the  cars  without  assistance.      (Gen.) 

Landing' man.     One  who  unloads  logging  sleds  at  the  landing.     (N.  F. ) 

Landing,  to  break  a.     To  roll  a  pile  of  logs  from  a  landing  or  bank  into  the  water. 
(Gen.) 

Land  looker.     See  Cruiser. 

Lap,  ».,  or  Lapwood,  ti.     Tops  left  in  the  woods  in  logging.     (Gen.) 

Lash  pole.     A  cross  pole  which  holds  logs  together  in  a  raft.      (Gen. ) 

Lazy  hanl,  to.     See  Jigger. 

Lead,  n.     A  snatch  block  with  a  hook  or  loop  for  fastening  it  to  convenient  station- 
ary objects,  used  for  guiding  the  cable  by  which  logs  are  dragged.     (P.  C.  F. ) 

Lead  line.     A  wire  I'ope,  with  an  eye  at  each  end,  used  to  anchor  the  snatch  block 
in  setting  a  lead.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Lead  log.     See  Brow  skid;  Head  log. 

Lightning  landing.    See  Landing. 

Limb,  V.     To  remove  the  limbs  from  a  felled  tree. 
Syn.:  knot.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Limber,?;.     One  who  cuts  the  limbs  from  felled  trees.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  knotter  (P.  C.  F. ),  knot  bumper  (App. ). 

Line  horse.     The  horse  which  drags  the  cable  from  the  yarding  engine  to  the  log  to 

which  the  cable  is  to  be  attached.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Lizard,  n.     See  Dray. 
Loader,)/.     1.  One  who  loads  logs  on  sleds  or  cars.      (Gen.) 

2.   See  Steam  loader. 
Loading  cliain.     A'iong  chain  used  in  loading  or  piling  logs  with  horses.      (N.  F. ) 

Syn. :  decking  chain. 
Loading  jack,     A  platformed    framework  upon    which  logs  are  hoisteil  from  the 

water  for  loading  upon  cars.      (N.  F. ) 
Loading  tripod.     Three  long  timbers  joined  at  their  tops  in  the  shape  of  a  tripod, 

for  holding  a  pulley  block  in  proper  position  to  load  logs  on  cars  from  a  lake  or 

stream.     ( L.  S. ) 
Syn. :  hoist. 
Lock  down.     A  strip  of  tough  wood,  with  holes  in  the  ends,  which  is  laid  across  a 

raft  of  logs.     Rafting  pins  are  driven  through  the  holes  into  the  logs,  thus  holding 

the  raft  together.  (N.  F.) 
Lodge,  to.  See  Hang  up,  to. 
Logan,  n.     See  Pokelogan. 


42  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

Log  deck.     The  platform  upon  a  loading  jack.     (Gen.) 
Log  diilii]).     See  Landing. 
Log  fixer.     See  Ros.«er. 
Logger,  n.     One  engaged  in  logging. 

Logging  sled.     The  heavy  double  sled  used  to  haul  logs  from  the  skidway  or  yard 
to  the  landing.     (N.  F. ) 

Syn. :  twin  sleds,  two  sleds,  wagon  sled. 
Logging-sled  road.     A  road,  leading  from  the  skidway  to  the  landing.     (X.  F. ) 
Logging  wheels.     A  pair  of  wheels,  usually  about   10  feet  in   diameter,  for  trans- 
porting logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  big  wheels,  katydid,  timber  wheels. 

Log  jack.     See  Gangway. 

Log  scale.     The  contents  of  a  log,  or  of  a  number  of  logs  considered  ctjllectively. 

(Gen.) 
Log,  to.     To  cut  logs  and  deliver  them  at  a  place  from  which  they  can  be  transported 

by  water  or  rail,  or,  less  frequently,  at  the  mill.     (Gen.) 
Log  watcli.     See  Head  driver. 
Logway,  n.     See  Gangway. 
Long  butt,  to.     See  Butt  off,  to. 
Loose-tongued  sloop.    See  Swing  dingle. 
Lubber  lift,  to.     To  raise  the  end  of  a  log  by  means  of  a  pry,  and  through  the  use 

of  weight  instead  of  strength.     (N.  F. ) 
Lug  liooks.     A  pair  of  tongs  attached  to  the  middle  uf  a  short  bar,  and  useil  by  two 

men  to  carry  small  logs.     (Gen. ) 
Lumber,  r.     To  log,  or  to  manufacture  logs  into  lumber,  or  both.     (Gen.) 
Lumberjack,  n.     One  who  works  in  a  logging  camp.     (Gen.) 
Lumberman,  n.     One  engaged  in  lumbering.      (Gen.) 
Mark,  n.     A  letter  or  sign  indicating  ownership,  which  is  stamped  on  the  ends  of 

logs.     (Gen.)     *S'ee  Bark  mark. 
Syn.:  brand,  end  mark. 
Mark  caller.     In  sorting  logs,  one  who  stands  at  the  lower  end  of  the  .-sorting  jack 

and  calls  the  different  marks,  so  that  the  logs  maybe  guided  into  tlie  proper  chan- 
nels or  pockets.     (Gen. ) 
Marker,  71.     One  who  puts  the  mark  on  the  end  of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Market,  n.     A  log  19  inches  in  diameter  at  the  .small  end  and  i:^>  feet  long.     (New 

York.) 

Syn. :  standard. 
Marking  hammer.     A  hammer  Ijearing  a  raised  device  which  is  stamped  on  logs,  to 

indicate  ownership.      (Gen.) 
Syn. :  marking  iron. 
Marking  iron.     See  Marking  hammer. 
Match,  V.     See  Mate. 
Mate,  v.     To  place  together  in  a  raft  logs  of  similar  size.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  match. 
Mill  pond.     The  pond  near  a  sawmill  in  which  logs  to  be  sawn  are  held.      (Gen.) 
Monitor.     See  Catamaran. 

Moss,  r.     To  fill  with  moss  the  crevices  between  the  logs  in  a  logging  camp.      (N.  F. ) 
Mud,  r.     To  (ill  with  soft  clay  the  crevices  between  the  logs  in  a  logging  camp.     (N.  F.) 


LOGGING    TERMS.  43 

Mudboiit,  n.     A  low  sled  with  wide  runners,   used  for  hauling  logs  in  swamps. 

(S.  F.,  N.  F.) 

Mudsill,  n.     The  bed  piece  or  bottom  timber  of  a  dam  which  is  placed  across  the 
stream,  usually  resting  on  rocks  or  in  mud.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  bottom  sill. 
Nick,  91.     See  Undercut. 

Nose,  V.     To  round  off  the  end  of  a  log  in  order  to  make  it  drag  or  slip  more  easily. 
(Gen.) 
Syn. :  snipe. 

Notch,  V.     To  make  an  undercut  in  a  tree  preparatory  to  felling  it.     (Gen. ) 

Syn.:  undercut. 
Notch,  n.     See  Undercut. 
Peaker,  n.     1.  A  load  of  logs  narrowing  sharply  toward  the  top,  and  thus  shaped 

like  an  inverted  V.      (Gen.) 
2.  The  top  log  of  a  load.     (Gen. ) 
Peavey,  n.     A  stout  lever  5  to  7  feet  long,  fitted  at  the  larger  end  with  a  metal 

socket  and  pike  and  a  curved  steel  hook  which  works  on  a  bolt;  used  in  handling 

logs,  especially  in  driving.     A  peavey  differs  from  a  cant  hook  in  having  a  pike 

instead  of  a  toe  ring  and  lip  at  the  end.     (Gen. ) 
Pecky,  a.     A  term  applied  to  an  unsoundness  most  common  in  bald  cypress.    (S.  F. ) 

Syn.:  peggy. 
Peeler,  n.     See  Barker. 
Peg'g^y,  a.     See  Pecky. 
Pickaroon,  n.     A  piked  pole  fitted  with  a  curved  hook,  used  in  holding  boats  to 

jams  in  driving,  and  for  pulling  logs  from  brush  and  eddies  out  into  the  current. 

(Gen.) 
Pick  the  rear,  to.     See  Sack  the  rear,  to. 
Pier  dam.     A  pier  built  from  the  shore,  usually  slanting  downstream,  to  narrow 

and  deepen  the  channel,  to  guide  logs  past  an  obstruction,  or  to  throw  all  the  water 

on  one  side  of  an  island.     ( N.  F. ) 
Syn.:  wing  dam. 
Pig,  n.     See  Rigging  sled. 
Pig  tail.     An  iron  device  driven  into  trees  or  stumps  to  support  a  wire  or  svuall 

rope.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Pike  pole.     A  piked  pole,  12  to  20  feet  long,  used  in  river  driving.     (Gen.) 
Pitch  pocket.     A  cavity  in  wood  filled  with  resin.     (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F. ) 
Pitch  streak.     A  seam  or  shake  filled  with  resin.     (Gen.) 
Plug  and  knock  down.     A  device  for  fastening  boom  sticks  together,  in  the  absence 

of  chains.     It  consists  of  a  withe  secured  by  wooden  plugs  in  holes  bored  in  the 

booms.      (N.  F. ) 
Pocket  boom.     A  boom  in  which  logs  are  held  after  they  are  sorted.     (Gen.) 
Point,  r.     See  Gun. 
Pokelogau,  n.     A  bay  or  pocket  into  which  logs  may  float  off  during  a  drive. 

(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Syn:  logan. 
Pond  man.     One  who  collects  logs  in  the  mill  pond  and  floats  them  to  the  gangway. 

(Gen.) 
Pontoon.     See  Catamaran. 


44  TERMS   USED   IN    FORESTRY   AND   LOGGING. 

Prize  logs.     Logs  which  come  to  the  sorting  jack  without  marks  denoting  owner- 

ship.     (N.  F.) 
Pull  back.     See  Haul  back. 
Pjill  boat.     A   flatboat,   carrying  a  steam  skiddor  or  a  donkey,   used    in    logging 

cypress.     (S.  F. ) 
Pull  the  briar,  to.     To  use  a  crosscut  saw.     (N.  F. ) 
Put  in,  to.     In  logging,  to  deliver  logs  at  the  landing.      (Gen.) 
(^uickwater,  d.     That  part  of  a  stream  which  lias  fall  enough  to  create  a  decided 

current.     (Gen.) 
Ant. :  Stillwater. 

Kafter  dam.     A  dam  in  which  long  timbers  are  set  on  the  upstream  side  at  an  angle 
of  20  to  40  degrees  to  the  water  surface.     The  pressure  of  the  water  against  the 
timbers  holds  the  dam  solidly  against  the  stream  bed.     (N.  F. ) 
Syn.:  self-loading  dam,  slant  dam. 

Ram  i»ike.  A  tree  broken  off  by  wind  and  with  a  splintered  end  on  the  portion 
left  standing.     (N.  F.) 

Rank,  r.     To  haul  and  pile  regularly,  as,  to  rank  bark  or  cord  wood.     (Gen.) 

Ranking  bar.    See  Handbarrow. 

Ranking  jumper.     A  wood-shod  sled  upon  which  tanbark  is  hauled.     (N.  F. ) 

Rave,  n.  A  piece  of  iron  or  wood  which  secures  the  beam  to  the  runners  of  a  logging 
sled.     (N.  W.,L.  S.) 

Rear,  n.     The  upstream  end  of  a  drive;  the  logs  may  be  either  stranded  or  tioating. 

"Floating  rear"  comprises  those  logs  which  may  l)e  floated  back  into  the  current; 

"dry  rear,"  those  which  must  be  dragged  or  rolled  back.     (Gen.) 
Receiving  boom.     See  Storage  boom. 

Ride,  /).     The  side  of  a  log  upon  which  it  rests  when  being  dragged.     (Gen.) 
Ride  a  log,  to.    To  stand  on  a  floating  log.      (Gen.) 
Rigging,  n.     The  cables,  blocks,  and  hooks  used  in  skidding  logs  bv  steam  power. 

(Gen.) 

Rigging  sled.     A  sled  used  to  haul  liooks  and  blocks  on  a  skid  road.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Syn. :  dog  boat,  pig. 

Rigging  slinger.  1.  A  member  of  a  yarding  crew,  whose  chief  duty  is  to  place 
chokers  or  grabs  on  logs.     (P.  C.  F. ) 

2.   One  who  attaches  the  rigging  to  trees,  in  steam  skidding.     (S.  F. ) 
Ring,  n.     A  section  of  tanbark,  usually  4  feet  long.     (N.  F. ) 

Ring  rot.  Decay  in  a  log,  which  follows  the  annual  rings  more'  or  less  closely. 
(Gen.) 

Rise,  n.     The  difference  in  diameter,  or  taper,  between  two  points  in  a  log.     (Gen.) 
River  boss.     The  foreman  in  charge  of  a  log  drive.     (N.  F. ) 
River  driver.    One  who  works  on  a  log  drive.     (Gen.) 

River  rat.     A  log  driver  who.se  work  is  chiefly  on  the  river;  contrasted  with  Laker. 

(N.  F.) 

Road  donkey.  A  donkey  engine  mounted  on  a  heavy  sled,  which  drags  logs  along 
a  skid  road  bv  winding  a  cable  on  a  drum.  It  has  a  second  drum  for  the  haul-back. 
(P.C.F.) 

Road  gang.  That  portion  of  the  crew  of  a  logging  camp  who  cut  out  logging  roads 
and  keep  them  in  repair.     (N.  F. ) 


LOGGING    TERMS.  45 

Road  monkey.     One  whose  duty  is  to  keep  a  logging  road  in  proper  condition. 
.      (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Syn.:  bine  jay,  greaser.      (P.  C.  F. ) 

Roll,  n.     The  crossbar  of  a  logging  sled  into  which  the  tongue  is  set.      (X.  W.,  L.  S. ) 
Syn.:  roller. 

Roller,  n.     See  Roll;  Upright  roller. 

Rolling:  (lam.  A  dam  for  raising  the  water  in  a  shallow  stream.  It  has  no  sluice- 
ways, but  a  smooth  top  of  timber  over  which,  under  a  sufficient  head  of  water, 
logs  may  slide  or  roll.     (Gen. ) 

•Roll  the  boom,  to.  To  roll  a  boom  of  logs  along  the  shore  of  a  lake  against  which 
it  is  held  by  wind,  by  the  use  of  a  c^ble  operated  by  a  steamboat  or  kedge.  The 
cable  is  attached  to  the  outer  side  of  the  boom,  hauled  up,  then  attached  again, 
thus  propelling  the  boom  by  revolving  it  against  the  shore  when  it  would  be 
impossible  to  tow  it.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Rollway,  n.     See  Landing. 

Rooster,  n.     See  Gooseneck. 

Rosser.  n.     One  who  barks  and  smooths  the  ride  of  a  log  in  order  that  it  may  slide 
more  easily.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  log  fixer  (P.  C.  F. ),  slipper,  scalper  (App. ). 

Rong'Ii  and  tumble  landing:.     See  Landing. 

Round  timber.     Pine  trees  which  have  not  been  turpentined.      (S.  F. ) 

Round  turn,  A  space  at  the  head  of  a  logging-sled  road,  in  which  the  sled  may  be 
turned  round  without  unhitching  the  team.     (N.  F. ) 

Runner  chain.  A  chain  bound  loosely  around  the  forward  end  of  the  runners  of  a 
logging  sled  as  a  brake.     (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 

Runner  dog.  A  curved  iron  attached  to  a  runner  of  the  hind  sled  of  a  logging  sled, 
which  holds  the  loaded  sled  on  steep  hills  by  being  forced  into  the  bed  of  the  road 
by  any  backward  movement.     (N.  F. ) 

Runway.     See  Gutter  road. 

Rutter,  n.  A  form  of  plow  for  cutting  ruts  in  a  logging  road  for  the  runners  of  the 
sleds  to  run  in.     (X.  W.,  L.  S. ) 

Sack  the  rear,  to.     To  follow  a  drive  and  roll  in  logs  which  have  lodged  or  grounded. 
(Gen.) 
Syn. :  pick  the  rear,  to. 

Sack  the  slide,  to.     To  return  to  a  slide  logs  which  have  jumped  out.     (Gen.) 

Saddle,  n.  The  depression  cut  in  a  transverse  skid  in  a  skid  road  to  guide  the  logs 
which  pass  over  it.     (P.  C.  F. ) 

Saddlebag",  v.  As  applied  to  a  boom,  to  catch  on  an  obstruction  and  double  around 
it.     (Gen.) 

Sampson,  n.  An  appliance  for  loosening  or  starting  logs  by  horsepower.  It  usually 
consists  of  a  strong,  heavy  timber  and  a  chain  terminating  in  a  heavy  swamp 
hook.  The  timber  is  placed  upright  beside  the  piece  to  be  moved,  the  chain 
fastened  around  it,  and  the  hook  inserted  low  down  on  the  opposite  side.  Lever- 
age is  then  applied  bv  a  team  hitched  to  the  upper  end  of  the  upright  timber. 
(X.  F.) 

Sampson  a  tree,  to.  To  direct  the  fall  of  a  tree  by  means  of  a  lever  and  pole. 
(N.  F.) 

Sap  stain.     Discoloration  of  the  sapwood.     (Gen.) 

Saw  fitter.     See  Filer. 


46  TERMS  USED  IN  FORESTRY  AND  LOGGING. 

Sawyer,  ».     See  Faller. 

Scale  book.     A  book  es^pecially  designed  for  recording  the  contents  of  scaled  logs. 

(Gen.) 
Scaler,??.     One  who  determines  the  volume  of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Scalper,  n.     See  Rosser. 
Scoot,  71.     See  Dray. 
Season  check.     See  Check. 

Second  faller.     The  subordinate  in  a  crew  of  fallers.     (P.  C.  F. ) 
Syn.:  helper.     (N.  F. ) 

Self-loadinfi:  dam.     .S'r*' Rafter  dam. 

Send-np  man.     That  member  of  a  loading  crew  who  guides  the  logs  up  the  skids. 

(Gen.) 
Syn.:  ground  loader.      (N.  F. ) 
Send  up,  to.     In  loading,  to  raise  logs  up  skids  with  cant  hooks,  or  >>y  steam  or 

horsepower.     (Gen.) 
Setting,  n.     The  temporary  station  of  a  portaVjle  sawmill,  a  yarding  engine,  or  other 

machine  used  in  logging.     (Gen.) 
Shake,  n.     A  crack  in  timber,  due  to  frost  or  wind.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  Windshake. 
Shanty  boat.     See  Wanigan. 
Shanty  boss.     See  Chore  boy. 
Shear  boom.     A  })ooni  so  secured  that  it  guides  floating  logs  in  the  desired  direction. 

(N.  F.) 
Syn.:  fender  boom,  glancing  boom. 
Shear  skid.     See  Fender  skid. 

Shoot  a  jam,  to.    To  loosen  a  log  jam  with  dynamite.     (Gen.) 
Shore  hold.    The  attachment  of  the  hawser  of  a  raft  of  logs  to  an  object  on  the 

shore.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Short  road.     See  (lO-back  road. 

Shot  holes.     Holes  made  in  wood  by  boring  insects.     (App. ) 
Side  jam.     A  jam  which  has  formed  on  one  side  of  a  stream,  usually  where  the  logs 

are  forced  to  the  shore  at  a  bend  by  the  current,  or  where  the  water  is  shallow  or 

there  are  partially  submerged  rocks.     (N.  F.) 
Side  mark.     See  Bark  mark. 
Side  winder.     A    tree    knocked   down    unexpectedly    by    the    falling   of    another. 

(Gen.) 
Signal  man.     One  who  transmits  orders  from  the  foreman  of  a  yarding  crew  to  the 

engineer  of  the  yarding  donkey.     ( P.  C.  F. ) 
Single  out,  to.     To  float  logs,  usually  cypress,  one  at  a  time,  from  the  woods  to  the 

float  road.     (S.  F.) 
Sinker,  71.     See  Deadhead. 
Sinker  boat.    See  Catamaran. 

Skid,  V.     1.  To  draw  logs  from  the  stump  to  the  skidway,  landing,  or  mill.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  snake,  twitch. 

2.  As  applied  to  a  road,  to  reenforce  by  placing  logs  or  poles  across  it.     (Gen.) 
Skid,  11.     A  log  or  pole,  commonly  used  in  pairs,  upon  which  logs  are  handled  or 

piled  (Gen.);  or  the  log  or  pole  laid  transversely  in  a  skid  road  (P.  C.  F. ). 


LOGGING    TERMS.  47 

Skidder,  ?!.     1.  One  who  skids  logs.     (Gen.) 

2.  A  sleam  engine,  usually  operating  from  a  railroad  track,  which  skids  logs  by 
means  of  a  cable.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  steam  skidder. 

3.  The  foreman  of  a  crew  which  construct.*  skid  roads.      (P.  C.  F. ) 

4.  Sir  Bummer. 

Skidding  chain.     A  heavy  chain  used  in  skidding  logs.     (Gen.) 
Skidding:  hooks.     .SVv  Skidding  tongs. 
Skiddins:  sled.     See  Dray. 

Skidding:  toii^s.     A  pair  of  hook.s  attached  by  links  to  a  ring  and  used  for  skidding 
logs.     (Gen.) 

8yn. :  grips,  grapples,  grabs,  skidding  hooks. 
Skidding  trail.     See  Gutter  road. 

Skid  grease.     A  heavy  oil  applied  to  skids  to  lessen  the  friction  of  logs  dragged  over 

them.     (P.  (\  F.) 
Skid  road.     1.   A  road  or  trail  leading  from  the  stump  to  the  skidway  or  landing. 
(Gen.) 
Syn.:  travois  road.     (N.  F. ) 

2.   A  road  over  which  logs   are  dragged,   having  heavy  transverse  skids  par- 
tially sunk  in  the  ground,  usually  at  intervals  of  about  5  feet.      (P.  C.  F. ) 

Skid  up,  to.     1.  To  level  or  reenforce  a  logging  road  by  the  use  of  skids.     (Gen.) 

2.  To  collect  logs  and  pile  them  on  a  skidway.     (Gen. ) 
Skidway,  ».     Two  skids  laid  parallel  at  right  angles  to  a  road,  usually  raised  above 
the  ground  at  the  end  nearest  the  road.     Logs  are  usually  piled  upon  a  skidway 
as  they  are  brought  from  the  stump  for  loading  upon  sleds,  wagons,   or  cars. 
(Gen.) 
Skidway,  to  break  a.     To  roll  piled  logs  off  a  skidway.     (Gen.) 
Sky  hooker.     See  Top  loader. 
Slack  water.     In  river  driving,  the  temporary  slackening  of  the  current  caused  by 

the  formation  of  a  jam.     (Gen. ) 
Slant  dam.     See  Rafter  dam. 

Slash,?;.     1.  The  debris  left  after  logging,  wind,  or  fire.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  slashing. 

2.  Forest  land  which  has  been  logged  off  and  upon  which  the  limbs  and  tops 
remain,  or  which  is  deep  in  debris  as  the  result  of  fire  or  wind.     (Gen. ) 
Slashing,  u.     See  Slash. 

Sled  tender.     1.  One  who  assists  in  loading  and   unloading  logs  or  skidding  with 
dray.     (X.  F.) 

Syn. :  chain  tender. 

2.   A  member  of  the  hauling  crew   who  accompanies  the  turn  of  logs  to  the 
landing,  unhooks  the  grabs,  and  sees  that  they  are  returned  to  the  yarding  engine. 
(P.  C.  F.) 
Slide,  n.     A  trough  built  of  logs  or  timber,  used  to  transport  logs  down  a  slope. 
(Gen.) 
Syn.:  chute,  dry  slide,  slip. 
Slide  tender.    One  who  keeps  a  slide  in  repair.     (Gen.) 

Slip,  n.     1.  See  Slide. 
2.  See  Gangway. 


48  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    L(XJGING. 

Slip  grah.     A  pear-shaped  link  attadietl  liy  a  swivel  to  a  skidding  evener  or  wliiffle- 
tree,  throngh  which  the  skidding  chain  is  passed.     The  chain  runs  freely  when 
the  slip  grab  is  held  sideways,  but  catches  when  the  grab  is  straight.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  grab  link. 

Slipper,  n.     See  Rosser. 

Slip  skids.     See  Glisse  skids. 

Sloop,  n.     See  Dray. 

Sloop  log's,  to;     To  haul  logs  down  steep  slopes  on  a  dray  or  sloop  equipped  with  a 
tongue.     (N.  F. ) 

Slou§rh  pig'.     Usually  a  second-rate  river  driver  who  is  assigned  to  picking  logs  out 
of  sloughs  in  advance  of  the  rear.     ('N.  F.) 

Sluice,  V.     1.  See  Flume. 

2.  To  float  logs  through  the  sluiceway  of  a  splash  dam.     (N.  F. ) 

3.  ^See  Splash. 
Sluice,  n.    See  Flume. 

Sluice  g-ate.     The  gate  closing  a  sluiceway  in  a  splash  dam.     (Gen.) 

Sluiceway,  n.     The  opening  in  a  splash  dam  through  which  logs  pass.      (Gen.) 

Suake,  r.     See  Skid. 

Snaking  trail.     See  Gutter  road. 

Snatch  team.     See  Tow  team. 

Snib,  r.     In  river  driving,  to  be  carried  aw-ay  purposely,  but  ostensibly  by  accident, 

on  the  first  portion  of  a  jam  that  moves;  to  ride  away  from  work  under  guise  of 

being  accidentally  carried  off.      (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 

Snipe,  r.     See  Nose. 

Sniper,  n.     One  who  noses  logs  before  they  are  skidded.      (Gen.) 

Snow  a  road,  to.     To  cover  bare  spots  in  a  logging  road  with  snow,  to  facilitate  the 

passage  of  sleds.     (N.  F.) 
Snow  slide.     A  temjjorary  slide  on  a  steep  slope,   made  by  dragging  a  large  log 

through  deep  snow  which  is  soft  or  thawing;  when  frozen  solidly,  it  may  be  used 

to  slide  logs  to  a  point  where  they  can  l)e  reached  by  sleds.     (N.  W.) 
Snub,  V.     To  check,  usually  by  means  of  a  snub  line,  the  speed  of  logging  sleds  or 

logs  on  steep  slopes,  or  of  a  log  raft.     (Gen.) 
Softwood,  a.     As  applied  to  trees  and  logs,  needle-leafed,  coniferous.     (Gen.) 
Softwood,  n.     A  needle-leafed,  or  coniferous,  tree.     (Gen.) 
Solid  jam.     1.   In  river  driving,  a  jam  formed  solidly  and  extending  from  bank  ^o 

bank  of  a  stream.     (N.  F. ) 
2.  A  drive  is  said  to  be  "  in  a  solid  jam  "  when  the  stream  is  full  of  logs  from 

the  point  to  which  the  rear  is  cleared  to  the  mill,  sorting  jack,  or  storage  ]>oom. 

(N.  F.) 
Sorting  boom.     A  strong  lioom  used  to  guide  logs  into  the  sorting  jack,  to  both 

sides  of  which  it  is  usually  attached.     (Gen. ) 
Sorting  gap.    See  Sorting  jack. 
Sorting  jack.     A  raft,  seiured  in  a  stream,  through  an  opening  in  which  logs  pass 

to  be  sorted  by  their  marks  and  diverted  into  pocket  booms  or  the  downstream 

channel.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  sorting  gap. 
Spanish  windlass.     A  device  for  moving  heavy  objects  in  logging.     It  consists  of  a 

rope  or  chain,  within  a  turn  of  which  a  lever  is  inserted  and  power  gained  by 

twisting.     (N.  F. ) 
Syn.:  twister. 


LOGGING    TERMS.  49 

Spiked  skid.  A  skid  in  wiiich  spike.s  are  inserted  in  order  to  keej)  logs  from  sliding 
back  when  being  loaded  or  piled.      (Gen. ) 

Splash,  V.     To  drive  logs  by  releasing  a  head  of  water  ectntined  by  a  splash  dam. 
(Gen). 
Syn. :  flood,  sluice. 

Splash  hoards.  Boards  placed  temporarily  on  top  of  a  rolling  dam  to  heighten  the 
dam,  and  thus  to  increase  the  head  of  water  available  for  river  driving.     (N.  F. ) 

Splash  dam.     A  dam  built  to  store  a  head  of  water  for  driving  logs.      (Gen.) 
Syn.:  flood  dam.     (Gen.) 

Split  roof.  A  roof  of  a  logging  camp  or  barn  made  by  laying  strips  split  from 
straight-grained  timber.  The  strips  run  from  the  ridge  pole  to  the  edves,  and 
break  the  joints  with  other  strips,  as  in  a  shingle  roof.     (N.  F. ) 

Spool  donkey.  A  donkey  engine  for  winding  cable,  equipped  with  a  spool  or  cap- 
stan, instead  of  a  drum.     (P.  C.  F. ) 

Spool  tender.     One  who  guides  the  cable  on  a  spool  donkey.     (P.  C.  F. ) 

Spot,  i\     See  Blaze. 

Spring  board.  A  short  board,  shod  at  one  end  with  an  iron  calk,  which  is  in- 
serted in  a  notch  cut  in  a  tree,  on  which  the  faller  stands  while  felling  the  tree. 
(P.  C.  F.,  S.  F.) 

Spring  pole.  1.  A  springy  pole  attached  to  the  tongue  of  a  logging  sled  and  pass- 
ing over  the  roll  and  under  the  beam,  for  holding  the  weight  of  the  tongue  off 
the  horses'  necks.     (N.  F. ) 

2.  A  device  for  steadying  a  crosscut  saw,  so  that  one  man  can  use  it  instead  of 
two.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Sprinkler,  n.     A  large  wooden  tank  from  which  water  is  sprinkled  over  logging 
roads  during  freezing  weather  in  order  to  ice  the  surface.     (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 
Syn. :  tank. 

Sprinkler  sleds.  The  sleds  upon  which  the  sprinkler  is  mounted.  They  consist 
of  two  sleds  whose  runners  turn  up  at  each  end,  fastened  together  by  cross  chains, 
and  each  having  a  pole,  in  order  that  the  sprinkler  may  be  hauled  in  either 
direction  without  turning  around.     (N.  F. ) 

Spud,  n.     A  tool  for  removing  bark.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  barking  iron. 

Spudder,  n.     See  Barker. 

Stag,  V.     To  cut  off  trousers  at  the  knee,  or  boots  at  the  ankle.     (N.  F.,  P.  C.  F. ) 

Standard,  n.     See  Market. 

Starting  bar.     See  Gee  throw. 

Stay  boom.  A  boom  fastened  to  a  main  boom  and  attached  upstream  to  the  shore 
to  give  added  strength  to  the  main  boom.     (Gen.) 

Steam  liauler.  A  geared  locomotive  used  to  haul  loaded  logging  sleds  over  an  ice 
road.  It  is  equipped  with  a  spiked  metal  belt  which  runs  over  sprocket  wheels 
replacing  the  driving  wheels,  and  is  guided  by  a  sled,  turned  by  a  steering  wheel, 
upon  which  the  front  end  rests.     (N.  F. ) 

Steam  jammer.     See  Steam  loader. 

Steam  loader.     A  machine  operated  by  steam  and  used  for  loading  logs  upon  cars. 
(Gen.) 
Syn. :  loader,  steam  jammer. 

Steam  skidder.    See  Skidder. 

Stem  winder.    See  Corkscrew. 


50  TERMS    USED    TN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGOING. 

Stillwater.     That  part  of  a  stream  haviuK  such  sliglit  fall  that  no  current  is  appar- 
ent.    Ant.:  quickwater.      ((Jen.) 
Syn.:  deadwater. 
Stock  lo8:s,  to.     To  deliver  logs  from  stump  to  mill  or  railroad.     (S.  F. ) 
Storage  boom.     A  strong  boom  used  to  hold  logs  in  storage  at  a  sawmill.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  holding  boom,  receiving  boom. 
Straw  boss,  n.     A  subforeman  in  a  logging  camp.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Syn. :  head  push. 
Stream  jam.    See  Center  jam. 
Stringer  road.    See  Fore-and-aft  road. 
Stumpage,  7i.     The  value  of  timber  as  it  stands  uncut  in  the  woods;  or,  in  a  general 

sense,  the  standing  timber  itself.     ((Jen.) 
Swamp,  V.     To  clear  the  ground  of  underbrush,  fallen  trees,  and  other  obstructions 

preparatory  to  constructing  a  logging  road  or  opening  out  a  gutter  road.     (Gen. ) 
Swamper,}).     One  who  swamps.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  beaver,  gutterman.     (N.  F. ) 
Swamp  hook.     A  large,  single  hook  on  the  end  of  a  chain,  used  in  handling  logs, 

most  commonly  in  skidding.     (Gen.) 
Sway  bar.     1.  A  strong  bar  or  pole,  two  of  which  couple  and  hold  in  position  the 
front  and  rear  sleds  of  a  logging  sled.     (N.  F. ) 

2.  The  bar  used  to  couple  two  logging  cars.     (Gen. ) 
Swell  butted.     As  applied  to  a  tree,  greatly  enlarged  at  the  base.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  bottle  butted,  churn  butted. 
Swing,  V.     See  Gun. 

Swing  dingle.     A  single  sled  with  wood-shod  runners  and  a  tongue  with  lateral 
play,  used  in  hauling  logs  down  steep  slopes  on  bare  ground.     (N.  F. ) 
Syn. :  loose-tongued  sloop. 
Swing  team.     In  a  logging  team  of  six,  the  pair  between  the  leaders  and  the  butt 

team.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Tail  chain.     A  heavy  chain   bound  around  the  trailing  end  of  logs,  as  a  brake,  in 

slooping  on  steep  slopes.     (N.  W. ) 
Taildown,  to.    To  roll  logs  on  a  skidway  to  a  point  on  the  skids  where  tbey  can  be 

quickly  reached  by  the  loading  crew.     (N.  F. ) 
Tail  hold.     1.   A  means  of  obtaining  increased  power  in  moving  a  log  by  tackle. 
The  cal)le  is  passed  through  a  block  attached  to  the  log  and  the  end  fastened  to  a 
stationary  object,  so  that  hauling  on  the  other  end  gives  twice  the  power  wliicii 
would  be  attained  by  direct  attachment  of  the  cable  to  the  log.     (P.  C.  F. ) 

2.  The  attachment  of  the  rear  end  of  a  donkey  sled,  usually  to  a  tree  or  stump. 
(P.  C.  F.) 
Tail  hook.    See  Dog. 

Tally  board.     A  thin,  smooth  board  used  by  a  scaler  to  record  the  number  or  vol- 
ume of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Tally  man.     One  who  records  or  tallies  the  measurements  of  logs  as  they  are  called 

by  the  scaler.  (N.  F. ) 
Tank,  n.  See  Sprinkler. 
Tank  conductor.     One  who  has  charge  of  the  crew  which  operates  a  sprinkler  or 

tank,  and  who  regulates  the  flow  of  water,  in  icing  logging  roads.     (N.  F. ) 
Tank  heater.     A  sheet-iron  cylinder  extending  through  a  tank  or  sprinkler,  in 
which  a  lire  is  kept  to  prevent  the  water  in  the  tank  from  freezing  while  icing 
logging  roads  in  extremely  cold  weather.     (N.  F. ) 


LOGGING    TERMS.  51 

Tanking.     The  act  of  hauling  water  in  a  tank,  to  ice  a  logging  road.     (N.  F.) 
Tee,  n.     A  strip  of  iron  about  6  inches  long  with  a  hole  in  the  center,  to  which  a 

short  chain  is  attached;  it  is  passed  through  a  hole  in  a  gate  plank,  turned  cross- 
wise, and  so  used  to  hold  the  plank  when  tripped  in  a  splash  dam.     (N.  W.) 
Throw,  r.     See  Wedge  a  tree,  to. 
Throw  line.    See  Trip  line. 
Throw  out.     See  Frog. 
Tide,  n.     A  freshet.     In  the  Appalachian  region  logs  are  rolled  into  a  stream  and  a 

"tide"  awaited  to  carry  them  to  the  boom.      (App.) 
Timber  wheels.    See  Logging  wheels. 
Toe  ring.     The  heavy  ring  or  ferrule  on  the  end  of  a  cant  hook.     It  has  a  lip  on 

the  lower  edge  to  prevent  slipping  when  a  log  is  grasped.     (Gen. ) 
Tog'gle  chain.     A  short  chain  with  a  ring  at  one  end  and  a  toggle  hook  and  ring  at 

the  other,  fastened  to  the  sway  bar  or  bunk  of  a  logging  sled,  and  used  to  regulate 

the  length  of  a  binding  chain.     (N.  F. ) 
Syn. :  bunk  chain. 
Toggle  hook.     A  grab  hook  with  a  long  shank,  used  on  a  toggle  chain.     (N.  F.) 
Tonging,  v.     Handling  logs  with  skidding  tongs.     (N.  F.) 
Top  chains.     Chains  used  to  secure  the  upper  tiers  of  a  load  of  logs  after  the  capacity 

of  the  regular  binding  chains  has  been  filled.     (Gen.) 
Top  load.     A  load  of  logs  piled  more  than  one  tier  high,  as  distinguished  from  a 

bunk  load.     (Gen.) 
Top  loader.     That  member  of  a  loading  crew  who  stands  on  the  top  of  a  load  and 

places  logs  as  they  are  sent  up.     (Gen. ) 
Syn.:  sky  hooker.     (N.  F.) 
Tote,  V.     To  haul  supplies  to  a  logging  camp.     (N.  F.) 
Tote  road.     A  road  used  for  hauling  supplies  to  a  logging  camp.     (N.  F.) 

Syn. :  hay  road. 
Tote  sled.    See  Jumper. 
Tow  team.     An  extra  team  stationed  at  an  incline  in  a  logging  road  to  assist  the 

regular  teams  in  ascending  with  loaded  sleds.     (N.  F. ) 
Syn.:  snatch  team. 
Trailers,  n.     Several  logging  sleds  hitched  behind  one  another  and  pulled  by  4  to  8 

horses  driven  by  one  man,  thus  saving  teamster's  wages.     (N.  F. ) 
Tram,  n.     See  Tramway. 
Tramway,  u.     A  light  or  temporary  railroad  for  the  transportation  qf  logs,  often 

with  wooden  rails  and  operated  by  horsepower.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  tram. 
Travois,  n.     See  Dray. 
Travois  road.     See  Skid  road. 
Trip,  V.     See  Wedge  a  tree,  to. 
Trip,  n.     See  Turn. 

Trip  a  dam,  to.    To  remove  the  plank  which  closes  a  splash  dam.     (N.  F. ) 
Trip  line.     1.  A  light  rope  attached  to  a  dog  hook,  used  to  free  the  latter  when 

employed  in  breaking  a  jam,  a  skidway,  or  a  load.     (N.  F. ) 
Syn. :  throw  line. 
2.  See  Haul  back. 
Tripsin,  n.     A  timber  placed  across  the  bottom  of  the  sluiceway  in  a  splash  dam, 

against  which  rest  the  planks  by  which  the  dam  is  closed.     (C-ren.) 


52  TERMS    USED    IN    FORESTRY    AND    LOGGING. 

Trouarli  roof.     A  roof  on  a  logging  cainp  or  Imrn,  made  of  small  logs  split  length- 
wise, hollowed  into  troughs  and  laid  from  ridge  pole  to  eaves.     The  joint?  of  the 

lower  tier  are  covered  by  inverted  troughs.     (N.  F. ) 
Turkey,  n.     A  bag  containing  a  lumberjack's  outfit.     To  "histe  the  turkey"   is  to 

take  one's  personal  belongings  and  leave  camp.      (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 
Turn,  n.     1.   A  single  trip  and  return  made  by  one  team  in  hauling  logs — e.  g.,  a 

four-turn  road  is  a  road  the  length  of  which  will  permit  of  only  four  round  trips 

per  day.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  trip.     (Gen.) 

2.  Two  or  more  logs  coupled  together  end  to  end  for  hauling.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Turnout,  n.     A  short  side  road  from  a  logging-sled  road,  to  allow  loaded  sleds  to 

pass.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Twin  sleds.    See  Logging  sled. 
Twister,  n.     See  Spanish  windlass. 
Twitch,  V.     See  Skid. 
Two  sleds.     See  Logging  sled. 
Undercut,  v.     See  Notch. 
Undercut,  /*.     The  notch  cut  in  a  tree  to  determine  the  direction  in  which  the  tree 

is  to  fall,  and  to  prevent  splitting.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  notch  (Gen.),  nick  (S.  F. ). 
Undercutter,  n.     A  skilled  woodman  who  chops  the  undercut  in  trees  so  that  they 

shall  fall  in  the  proper  direction.     (Gen. ) 
Union  drive.     A  drive  of  logs  belonging  to  several  owners,  who  share  the  expense 

pro  rata.     (N.  F. ) 
Upriglit  roller.     A  flanged  roller  placed  upright  at  a  bend  in  a  skid  road  to  direct 

the  cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:  roller,  dolly. 
Value,  ''.     See  Cruise. 
Valuer,  n.     See  Cruiser. 
Van,  n.     The  small  store  in  a  logging  camp  in  which  clothing,  tobacco,  and  medicine 

are  kept  to  supply  the  crew.     (N.  W.,  L.  S. )     See  Commissary. 
Wag'on  sled.     See  Logging  sled. 
Wanigan,  u.     A  houseboat  used  as  sleeping  quarters  or  as  kitchen  and  dining  room 

by  river  drivers.     (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 

Syn.:  ark  (X.  F.),  shanty  boat  (S.  F.). 
Water  ladder.     Pole  guides  up  and  down  which  a  barrel  slides  in  filling  a  sprinkler 

by  horsepower.     (N.  W.,  L.  S. ) 
Water  slide.    See  Flume. 
Wedge  a  tree,  to.     To  topple  over  with  wedges  a  tree  that  is  being  felled.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  throw,  trip. 
Wet  slide.     See  Flume. 
>Vliiflletree  neekyoke.     A  heavy  logging  neckyoke,  to  the  ends  of  which  short 

whillietrees  are  attached  by  rings.     From  the  ends  of  the  whiffletrees  wide  straps 

run  to  the  breeching,  thus  giving  the  team  added  power  in  holding  back  loads  on 

steep  slopes.     (N.  F. ) 
White  water  man.     A  log  driver  who  is  expert  in   breaking  jams  on  rapids  or 

falls.     (N.  F.) 
Widow  maker.     A  broken  limb  hanging  loose  in  the  top  of  a  tree,  which  in  its  fall 

may  injure  a  man  below  (N.  F. ),  or  a  breaking  cable  (P.  C.  F. ). 


LOGGING    TERMS.  53 

WijErwaiii.  to  make  a.     In  felling  trees,  to  lodge  several    in  piirh  a  way  that  they 

■  support  each  other.     ( N.  F. ) 

Windfall,  ».     An  area  upon  which  the  trees  have  been  thrown  by  wind;    also,  a 

single  tree  thrown  l)y  wind.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  blow  down,  wind  slash.     (N.  F.) 
Windshake,  n.     See  Shake. 
Wind  slash.      See  Windfall. 
Winir  dam.     See  Pier  dam. 
Winjf  jam.     A  jam  which  is  formed  against  an  obstacle  in  the  stream  and  slants 

upstream  until  the  upper  end  rests  solidly  against  one  shore,  with  an  open  channel 

for  the  passage  of  logs  on  the  opposite  side.     (N.  F.) 
Woodpecker,  n.     A  poor  chopper.     (Gen.) 
Wrapper  chain.     See  Binding  chain. 
Yard,  n.     See  Landing. 
Yardiag  donkey.     A  donkey  engine  mounted  upon  a  heavy  sled,  used  in  yarding 

logs  by  drum  and  cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 


;  ^-  -■^^- 


(\r^ 


^X.:  ',  -.^       ^; 


•..ii-..-2 


•5«^^v^;vrV  .-i 


^^iy^- 


M.'^^^ 


•-./■ 'A-  .:-,.':.    --       .      ^-■?\v^:„     A  V-'  .^<^     ^'-.^v-t^,,   4 


^^^^■■•■•^■^'* 


..'^^.■-^.M-*:"-;.  .:: /^ 


:-fl/X-??-?^ 


^:^. 


